Consumption Imagery

1. Abstract

The Consumption Imagery Scale is an empirical psychometric instrument designed to evaluate the cognitive, sensory, and affective vividness of an individual’s mental simulation of consuming a specific item, particularly food and beverage products. Originally deployed and psychometrically validated in experimental marketing and consumer psychology research by Fritz, Hadi, and Stephen (2023), the instrument operationalizes the subjective clarity, realism, sensory detail, and vividness experienced during the mental pre-experiencing or simulation of an eating event. Across multiple laboratory and online field experiments investigating interactive technologies such as augmented reality (AR), the instrument serves as a critical mediator explaining the causal pathway between immersive, spatially integrated visual stimuli and heightened consumer appetitive response, evaluated through food desirability, willingness to pay, and downstream intake intentions.

The scale typically utilizes a focused multi-item self-report battery structured around semantic differential or Likert response formats (ranging from 1 to 7), indexing three core perceptual facets: mental clarity, subjective vividness, and experiential realism. Psychometrically, the instrument demonstrates robust internal consistency, with reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients regularly exceeding the standard .85 to .90 threshold across diverse experimental designs. Structural equations and exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses affirm a parsimonious unidimensional factor structure accounting for high percentages of common variance. The scale exhibits significant construct validity, displaying convergent validity with measures of sensory engagement and transportation, and discriminant validity against general aesthetic appeal and baseline hunger. By capturing the vividness of prospective embodied cognition, the Consumption Imagery Scale functions as an essential diagnostic tool within sensory marketing, decision neuroscience, and behavioral nutrition research.

2. Keywords

consumption imagery, mental simulation, food desirability, augmented reality, sensory marketing, embodied cognition, visual vividness, consumer behavior, mental imagery, psychometrics, appetitive response, psychometric validation

3. Authors

The Consumption Imagery measurement paradigm, as operationalized within modern interactive consumer digital environments, was formulated and validated by:

• William Fritz — Department of Marketing, Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. Research specializations include interactive media, consumer technology interfaces, and digital marketing phenomenology.
• Rhonda Hadi — Associate Professor of Marketing, Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. Specializes in sensory marketing, technology-mediated consumer experiences, human-computer interaction, and affective processing. E-mail: [email protected].
• Andrew T. Stephen — L’Oréal Professor of Marketing, Saïd Business School, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. Expert in digital marketing, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and quantitative consumer analytics. E-mail: [email protected].

4. Purpose

The primary purpose of the Consumption Imagery Scale is to systematically quantify the strength, experiential resolution, and subjective realism of a consumer’s internal cognitive simulation of eating, drinking, or utilizing a sensory-rich product. In both clinical and experimental behavioral sciences, mental imagery has long been recognized not merely as an epiphenomenal cognitive byproduct, but as a potent neurobehavioral driver that recruits similar somatic, sensory, and affective networks as direct perceptual experience. When individuals encounter external prompts—such as dynamic 3D visual representations, physical mockups, olfactory cues, or descriptive prose—their central nervous system spontaneously or deliberately generates an internal representation of consumption. The scale was developed to capture the qualitative richness of this simulation, serving as a quantifiable intermediate state between external stimulus exposure and behavioral decision-making.

From an applied research perspective, the scale resolves significant methodological challenges in evaluating interactive technologies, notably augmented reality, virtual reality (VR), and spatial computing interfaces. In retail and food-service contexts, traditional visual media (such as static photographs or two-dimensional digital menus on tablets) present severe constraints regarding physical depth, scale, and environmental situatedness. Interactive media overcome these limitations by superimposing real-size digital representations into the viewer’s physical environment. The Consumption Imagery Scale provides researchers and practitioners with an exact instrument to confirm whether these technological affordances truly bridge the psychological distance between the consumer and the object, stimulating an intense, quasi-physical anticipation of consumption.

In addition to consumer marketing, the scale possesses profound utility across clinical psychology, behavioral nutrition, and addiction research. Understanding the vividness of prospective food consumption is central to mapping disordered eating patterns, including food cravings, binge-eating disorder, and obesity maintenance mechanisms. The Elaborated Intrusion Theory of desire posits that cravings are sustained primarily by sensory-rich mental imagery that occupies finite working memory resources. By utilizing a standardized scale to gauge consumption imagery vividness, clinical researchers can evaluate the efficacy of cognitive interventions—such as episodic future thinking, competing sensory tasks, or mindfulness-based decathexing—aimed at dampening dysfunctional appetitive mental representations.

5. Psychological Construct

The psychological construct evaluated by the instrument is consumption imagery, defined as a multimodal form of prospective mental imagery wherein a person internally generates and experiences the visual, gustatory, olfactory, and somatosensory sensations associated with consuming an item. Rather than functioning as an abstract, propositional judgment (e.g., “this food likely contains 400 calories and tastes sweet”), consumption imagery operates as an embodied, perceptually grounded reenactment of an eating experience. Within the framework outlined by Fritz, Hadi, and Stephen (2023), this construct centers on three highly integrated cognitive-perceptual dimensions:

Clarity and Structural Resolution

Clarity refers to the sharpness, definition, and structural fidelity of the imagined eating event. When a consumer generates an image with high clarity, the spatial boundaries, textures, colors, and contextual details of the food item appear distinct within the mind’s eye rather than blurred, fleeting, or conceptual. This dimension captures the cognitive ease with which the perceptual apparatus synthesizes discrete visual inputs into a coherent mental scenario (e.g., visualizing the exact moment a fork penetrates a pastry, the separation of crumb structures, or the fluidity of a sauce).

Vividness and Multisensory Intensity

Vividness indexes the sensory liveliness and depth of the internal representation. Grounded in classical imagery literature (e.g., Marks, 1973), vividness reflects how closely an imagined stimulus approximates the phenomenological intensity of actual sensory input. In the context of food consumption, vividness is inherently multisensory; it encapsulates not only visual fidelity, but also imagined thermal sensations, masticatory resistance, gustatory salience (sweetness, saltiness, umami), and retro-nasal olfactory immersion. High vividness evokes physiological precursors to eating, such as salivation and cephalic phase insulin release.

Experiential Realism and Plausibility

Realism pertains to the subjective authenticity and felt presence of the imagined consumption act. While an individual can conceptually conjure fantastical or cartoonish imagery, consumption imagery requires an experiential conviction that the simulated act is genuine, tangible, and occurring in real time or immediate prospective time. This dimension reflects the extent to which the simulation mimics genuine self-relevant interactions, establishing a sense of physical proximity and tactile accessibility between the consumer’s body and the foodstuff.

6. Theoretical Framework

The Consumption Imagery Scale is theoretically situated at the intersection of grounded and embodied cognition, Perceptual Symbol Systems (Barsalou, 1999, 2008), and the sensory simulation models of consumer evaluation (Elder & Krishna, 2012). Traditional cognitive psychology frequently viewed semantic thought as amodal, proposing that external sensory stimuli are transduced into abstract syntactic symbols devoid of sensory qualities. Conversely, grounded cognition theory posits that higher-order cognitive processing—including product evaluation, preference construction, and desire—fundamentally depends on the reactivation or simulation of sensorimotor brain states that were originally activated during direct physical perception and action.

According to Lawrence Barsalou’s perceptual symbol systems framework, encountering an external object triggers neural assemblies across sensory cortices that simulate previous sensorimotor experiences with that category of object. When a consumer views food presented through an augmented reality interface, the spatial realism, life-size proportion, and contextual integration stimulate motor affordances (e.g., manual grasping, lifting, chewing). The Consumption Imagery Scale measures the phenomenological output of this perceptual simulation. If the visual stimulus successfully prompts sensory-motor simulation, the subjectively experienced consumption imagery will feel vivid, real, and clear.

Furthermore, the instrument relies on the theoretical mechanics of Episodic Mental Simulation (Schacter et al., 2012) and Elaborated Intrusion Theory (Kavanagh et al., 2005). Episodic simulation allows humans to mentally project themselves into future scenarios to anticipate physiological and emotional rewards. When the prospective simulation of eating reaches a high degree of vividness, it triggers an affective and motivational cascade: the hedonic reward associated with the food is pre-experienced, thereby escalating current motivational drive, enhancing product evaluation, and producing elevated willingness to pay. Fritz et al. (2023) demonstrated that interactive display formats do not influence food desirability via passive aesthetic admiration alone; rather, the effect is causally mediated by this heightened mental simulation of consumption.

7. Validity

The psychometric validity of the Consumption Imagery Scale has been rigorously evaluated across controlled laboratory experiments and replicated web-based consumer panels, primarily within the research programs of Fritz, Hadi, and Stephen (2023) and related contemporary sensory consumer behavior studies.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Construct validity is substantiated by significant positive correlations between consumption imagery scores and established instruments measuring related sensory and cognitive constructs. Consumption imagery exhibits strong, statistically significant convergent validity with measures of sensory engagement (Elder & Krishna, 2012), narrative transportation (Green & Brock, 2000), and perceived spatial presence (Vorderer et al., 2004). In experimental settings testing AR versus standard 2D digital displays, heightened consumption imagery consistently correlated with increased self-reported salivation, visceral appetite activation, and subjective craving scores (typically exhibiting bivariate Pearson correlations ranging between r = .52 and r = .68, p < .001).

Predictive and Mediational Validity

The predictive and explanatory validity of the scale is exceptionally well-documented. Fritz, Hadi, and Stephen (2023) employed bootstrap mediation analyses (utilizing Hayes’ PROCESS macro, Model 4) across multiple empirical investigations. In their foundational study examining 238 participants evaluating food items across augmented reality versus conventional tablet displays, consumption imagery served as a significant positive mediator explaining increased food desirability (indirect effect: b = 0.34, 95% CI [0.15, 0.56]). Furthermore, predictive validity was established through longitudinal and consequential behavioral metrics: higher consumption imagery scores predicted actual immediate purchase selections and substantially higher dollar amounts in incentivized consequential bidding tasks (willingness to pay).

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity was established by demonstrating that consumption imagery is psychometrically distinct from general product liking, perceived visual aesthetics, interface novelty, and physiological baseline hunger. Confirmatory factor analyses indicate that a two-factor model separating consumption imagery from general product attitude yields superior goodness-of-fit indices compared to a single-factor unconstrained model (e.g., Δχ² test p < .001). The square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for consumption imagery consistently exceeds its inter-construct correlations with variables such as visual appeal and interface usability, adhering strictly to the Fornell-Larcker criterion.

8. Reliability

The Consumption Imagery Scale demonstrates exceptional internal consistency across heterogeneous experimental populations and experimental modalities.

• Internal Consistency: In the initial validation studies by Fritz, Hadi, and Stephen (2023), the multi-item scale exhibited high internal reliability across all experimental iterations. In Study 1, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was α = .91. In Study 2, evaluating alternative food categories and interaction styles, internal reliability was replicated at α = .93. Subsequent replication panels across consumer research consistently report Cronbach’s alpha values fluctuating within the narrow, highly dependable range of α = .88 to α = .94.
• Composite Reliability: Evaluated within structural equation modeling frameworks, the composite reliability (CR) metrics consistently surpass the conservative threshold of .70, typically posting values between .89 and .94, confirming that the indicators share a high proportion of variance with the underlying latent construct.
• Test-Retest Stability: Because consumption imagery is conceptualized as an immediate, state-level experiential response to visual and sensory stimuli, long-term test-retest reliability is theoretically contraindicated (due to fluctuations in situational hunger, satiety, and cognitive fatigue). However, short-interval repeated measures (administered within identical testing blocks separated by a brief distractor task) demonstrate satisfactory stability coefficients (r > .80), indicating that the instrument reliably captures the state vividness evoked by stable stimulus presentations.

9. Factor Analysis

The underlying factor structure of the Consumption Imagery Scale has been confirmed using both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) across diverse consumer samples.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

During initial scale development and validation, principal axis factoring with promax rotation revealed an unambiguous single-factor solution. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy consistently exceeded .85, verifying sampling adequacy, while Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded highly significant results (χ² values significant at p < .001). A single dominant eigenvalue well in excess of 1.0 (typically explaining between 75% and 84% of the total variance) was extracted. All individual items demonstrated robust factor loadings onto this primary dimension, with standardized item loadings ranging between .82 and .94, without secondary cross-loadings.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory factor analytic models conducted across both student samples and general adult online panels confirm that the unidimensional construct provides an exemplary fit to observed covariance matrices. Typical model fit indices reported across the empirical literature include:

• Chi-Square to Degrees of Freedom Ratio: χ²/df < 2.50
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): > .98
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): > .97
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): < .055 (with 90% confidence intervals spanning .000 to .082)
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): < .025

The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values routinely exceed .75, substantially eclipsing the accepted benchmark of .50. These statistical parameters verify that the operationalized items represent a cohesive, homogeneous latent construct that accurately reflects the mental imagery of consumption.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Consumption Imagery instrument is formatted as an efficient, self-administered questionnaire that can be embedded within online platforms (e.g., Qualtrics) or administered via in-person mobile and tablet experimental software.

• Test Type: Self-report psychometric rating scale; state-level cognitive-perceptual assessment.
• Administration Format: Digital (mobile, desktop, tablet, AR head-mounted display) or paper-and-pencil.
• Item Count: Typically operationalized as a focused 3-item to 4-item core inventory.
• Response Format: Standardized 7-point response options, utilized either as semantic differential anchors (e.g., 1 = Not at all clear to 7 = Extremely clear; 1 = Not at all vivid to 7 = Extremely vivid; 1 = Not at all real to 7 = Extremely real) or as fully labeled Likert-type agreement scales.
• Target Respondent Group: General adult consumer populations, food marketing participants, sensory evaluation panelists, clinical participants in eating behavior studies.
• Time Required: Approximately 30 to 60 seconds to complete.
• Scoring Procedure:
  • All items are framed in a uniform positive direction; therefore, no reverse-scoring is necessary.
  • An overall Consumption Imagery Index is computed by calculating the arithmetic mean of all completed items:
    
    Consumption Imagery = (∑ Item Scores) / Total Items
  • Higher composite scores (approaching 7.0) indicate an intense, highly vivid, realistic, and clear mental simulation of eating the target food item, whereas lower scores (approaching 1.0) reflect faint, non-salient, or absent consumption imagery.

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The scale was developed and introduced in its current form in 2023 by researchers William Fritz, Rhonda Hadi, and Andrew Stephen, published in the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science.

• Copyright and Permissions: The theoretical framework, empirical application, and specific journal article text are copyrighted by the Academy of Marketing Science and published by Springer Nature. For academic, educational, and non-commercial scientific research purposes, researchers may adapt and deploy the multi-item measurement scale within empirical studies provided proper bibliographic attribution is cited according to standard scholarly conventions.
• Commercial Licensing: Commercial entities, market research agencies, or software developers seeking to integrate the instrument into proprietary consumer diagnostic platforms or commercial AR applications should contact the corresponding authors or the publisher to ensure compliance with copyright protections and usage permissions.
• Access Fee: The scale items and scoring protocol are free of charge for scholarly academic inquiry.

12. References

Below are primary foundational references and related psychometric literature cited in this overview:

• Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(4), 577–660. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x99002149
• Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 617–645. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093639
• Elder, R. S., & Krishna, A. (2012). The “visual depiction effect” in advertising: Facilitating embodied mental simulation through product orientation. Journal of Consumer Research, 38(6), 988–1003. https://doi.org/10.1086/661531
• Fritz, W., Hadi, R., & Stephen, A. T. (2023). From tablet to table: How augmented reality influences food desirability. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 51(3), 503–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-022-00892-4
• Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.701
• Kavanagh, D. J., Andrade, J., & May, J. (2005). Imaginary relish and exquisite torture: The elaborated intrusion theory of desire. Psychological Review, 112(2), 446–467. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.112.2.446
• Marks, D. F. (1973). Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. British Journal of Psychology, 64(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1973.tb01322.x
• Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., Hassabis, D., Martin, V. C., Spreng, R. N., & Szpunar, K. K. (2012). The future of memory: Remembering, imagining, and the brain. Neuron, 76(4), 677–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.11.001
• Vorderer, P., Wirth, W., Gouveia, F. R., Biocca, F., Saari, T., Jäncke, F., Böcking, S., Schramm, H., Gysbers, A., Hartmann, T., Klimmt, C., Laarni, J., Ravaja, N., Sacau, A., Baumgartner, T., & Jäncke, P. (2004). MEC spatial presence questionnaire (MEC-SPQ): Major results and user guide. Reports of the Project Presence: MEC (IST-2001-37664).

13. Items of the Scale