Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love–Model Questionnaire

Abstract

The Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love–Model Questionnaire (Yadav, Paul, & Mittal, 2023) is a specialized psychometric instrument developed to evaluate the complex socio-cognitive and affective mechanisms underpinning tourists’ relationships with a country as a holistic brand entity. In an increasingly globalized and competitive international landscape, a sovereign state’s reputation directly dictates foreign direct investment, diplomatic goodwill, export market equity, and international tourism flows. Grounded in experiential marketing and human-brand relationship theory, the measurement model operationalizes seven interconnected latent constructs across 21 items: Sensory Nation Brand Experience, Affective Nation Brand Experience, Behavioral Nation Brand Experience, Intellectual Nation Brand Experience, Nation Brand Love, Nation Brand Loyalty, and Positive Word-of-Mouth (PWOM). Survey items were adapted from foundational paradigms in brand experience (Brakus et al., 2009), destination love (Barnes et al., 2014), and consumer-brand relationship theory (Bagozzi et al., 2017), recalibrated to measure nation-level tourist engagement.

Administered using a standard five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree), the instrument was empirically validated with international tourists traveling across major cultural hubs in India. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) demonstrated robust structural integrity and exceptional fit with the empirical data (χ² = 192.4, df = 90, RMSEA = 0.059, CFI = 0.96, GFI = 0.95). Factor loadings consistently surpassed the conservative 0.70 benchmark, confirming high indicator reliability. Convergent validity was established with Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values equaling or exceeding 0.50, complemented by composite reliability (CR) coefficients spanning 0.91 to 0.95 and Cronbach’s alpha indices ranging from 0.661 to 0.849. Discriminant validity was fully sustained via the Fornell–Larcker criterion, verifying that nation brand love operates as a conceptually distinct, powerful mediator translating multi-sensory and cognitive nation experiences into sustainable brand loyalty and positive advocacy.

Keywords

Nation Brand Love, Nation Brand Experience, Nation Brand Loyalty, Sensory Experience, Affective Experience, Intellectual Experience, Behavioral Experience, Positive Word-of-Mouth, Place Branding, Consumer-Brand Relationships, Tourism Psychometrics, Structural Equation Modeling

Authors

The instrument was designed, operationalized, and psychometrically evaluated by an international research team specializing in marketing, consumer behavior, and international business:

• Rohit Yadav, Ph.D. — Faculty of Commerce and Management, SGT University, Gurugram, Haryana, India. ORCID: 0000-0002-7573-8005.
• Justin Paul, Ph.D. — Graduate School of Business, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA; and Distinguished Professor/Editor across leading international business institutions. ORCID: 0000-0001-5062-8371.
• Amit Mittal, Ph.D. (Corresponding Author) — Chitkara Business School, Chitkara University, Punjab, India. Email: [email protected]. ORCID: 0000-0002-1191-4620.

Purpose

The overarching purpose of the Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love–Model Questionnaire is to operationalize, quantify, and empirically assess the structural and psychological pathways through which multidimensional national brand experiences foster tourist brand love, and how this passionate affective commitment translates into commercial and reputational gains for a nation. In modern geopolitical and socio-economic systems, sovereign nations behave increasingly like commercial megabrands. Governments invest substantial resources into public diplomacy, national identity engineering, international tourism campaigns, and mega-events (e.g., Olympic Games, World Expos) to cultivate a favorable global reputation. However, traditional destination marketing measurements typically focus on transactional indicators (e.g., visitor numbers, tourist expenditure, short-term satisfaction) or narrow cognitive evaluations (perceived service quality, destination image). These conventional frameworks fail to capture the profound, emotionally charged, and identity-defining connections travelers form with a nation.

From an applied research and public policy perspective, the scale addresses this theoretical and empirical void by treating nation branding not as an abstract macro-construct, but as a lived, subjective experience that triggers high-order emotional states. The questionnaire systematically assesses how four fundamental sensory and psychological touchpoints—sensory immersion, emotional resonance, physical bodily action, and intellectual curiosity—collectively stimulate Nation Brand Love. In turn, it evaluates how this internalized emotional state mediates traveler behavioral intentions, specifically operationalized as enduring Nation Brand Loyalty (e.g., intent to revisit, prioritizing national products, ongoing engagement) and organic Positive Word-of-Mouth (e.g., active advocacy, defending the nation against negative publicity, passionate peer recommendations).

In academic research, this measurement model allows cross-cultural investigators and psychometricians to test complex structural equations regarding consumer-place bonding, destination marketing dynamics, and country-of-origin (COO) equity. In practical contexts, national tourism ministries, trade promotion organizations, and strategic communication bodies can deploy the questionnaire to diagnose which experiential dimensions of their nation are performing optimally and which require policy intervention. By identifying whether international travelers perceive a nation primarily as an intellectual novelty, a sensory stimulus, or an emotional sanctuary, policymakers can calibrate destination management strategies to convert casual tourists into lifelong national brand advocates.

Psychological Construct

The questionnaire models a comprehensive nomological network composed of seven distinct psychological and behavioral constructs. Each construct represents an established psychological domain tailored to nation-level tourist cognition:

1. Sensory Nation Brand Experience

This dimension captures the sensory impressions evoked by a country’s natural and built environment, artistic heritage, auditory landscapes, culinary culture, scents, and visual aesthetics. Rooted in environmental psychology, sensory brand experience reflects how a nation stimulates the traveler’s five senses. For example, in the context of tourism in India, sensory inputs include striking architectural forms (such as the Taj Mahal or historic forts), vibrant textiles, ambient street sounds, regional musical traditions, and rich olfactory and culinary spice profiles. A high sensory score indicates that the tourist perceives the nation as intensely vivid, visually compelling, and sensually memorable.

2. Affective Nation Brand Experience

Affective experience evaluates the depth of emotional arousal, sentimental resonance, and subjective feelings elicited by being in the country. Moving beyond cognitive evaluations of service efficiency, this dimension assesses the warmth, joy, peace, awe, or nostalgic wonder a visitor feels while interacting with local inhabitants, landscapes, and cultural rituals. It measures whether the nation induces an uplifting emotional state and builds an immediate, heart-centered bond with the individual.

3. Behavioral Nation Brand Experience

This subscale assesses the physical, actionable, and lifestyle-oriented interactions the tourist undergoes within the nation. Behavioral brand experience pertains to bodily actions, participatory activities, sports, cultural immersion rituals, navigating local terrain, and personal lifestyle modifications adopted during the stay. It captures whether the destination invites active physical engagement, prompting travelers to step outside passive spectator roles and dynamically interact with the national environment.

4. Intellectual Nation Brand Experience

Intellectual experience measures the extent to which the nation stimulates cognitive inquiry, philosophical curiosity, analytical thinking, and mental expansion. A country rich in complex history, sociopolitical nuance, diverse spiritual traditions, or advanced innovation challenges a tourist’s worldview. This dimension gauges whether visiting the country provoked deep reflection, expanded personal perspectives, and invited intellectual problem-solving or philosophical exploration.

5. Nation Brand Love

Representing the central affective mediator of the model, Nation Brand Love is defined as an intense, emotionally charged, passionate psychological attachment that a consumer or tourist experiences toward a specific sovereign nation. Derived from human-to-human love paradigms, this construct incorporates feelings of profound affection, passion, emotional connection, and self-brand integration. Tourists who report high nation brand love do not merely like or approve of the country; they feel an existential affinity toward it, perceiving the country as an extension of their personal identity and harboring a genuine longing to remain connected with its people and culture.

6. Nation Brand Loyalty

Adapted to the macro-place context, Nation Brand Loyalty assesses the enduring cognitive and conative commitment to maintain an ongoing relationship with the nation. This includes concrete intentions to return for future visits, resistance to switching to competing travel destinations, and a sustained preference for commercial goods, cultural exports, and media originating from that country. It quantifies long-term behavioral persistence driven by internal attachment rather than external convenience.

7. Positive Word-of-Mouth (PWOM)

Positive Word-of-Mouth represents the active, voluntary advocacy behaviors undertaken by the traveler. It measures the likelihood of the tourist actively praising the nation to friends, family, colleagues, and social media networks, passionately recommending the country as a must-visit destination, and actively defending the nation’s cultural prestige, safety, and reputation if questioned by skeptical peers.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical architecture of the Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love model synthesizes three foundational paradigms in cognitive psychology, relational marketing, and environmental psychology:

1. The Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) Paradigm

Originally formulated by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) in environmental psychology, the S-O-R framework posits that environmental stimuli (S) trigger internal, organismic affective and cognitive states (O), which in turn dictate subsequent approach or avoidance behavioral responses (R). Within the Yadav, Paul, and Mittal (2023) model, the multidimensional nation brand experiences (Sensory, Affective, Behavioral, Intellectual) serve as the external environmental stimuli (S). The holistic emotional state of Nation Brand Love represents the internal organismic reaction (O). Finally, Nation Brand Loyalty and Positive Word-of-Mouth embody the conative and behavioral approach responses (R). This structure provides a causal psychological spine explaining how complex sensory-cognitive encounters convert into sustained public advocacy.

2. Experiential Marketing and Multidimensional Experience Theory

The conceptualization of nation brand experience is directly anchored in the seminal work of Brakus, Schmitt, and Zarantonello (2009), alongside experiential economic theories popularized by Pine and Gilmore. Brakus et al. demonstrated that brand experience is not a single evaluative attitude, but a multidimensional construct evoked by brand-related stimuli (packaging, identities, communications, and operational environments). Yadav et al. successfully transferred this framework to geopolitical entities, arguing that a nation’s total offering operates as a complex sensory and cognitive experiential platform. Tourists do not merely evaluate a country based on utilitarian attributes (e.g., hotel star ratings, transport infrastructure cost); they absorb holistic experiential impressions that stimulate their senses, stir their feelings, demand physical interaction, and ignite intellectual contemplation.

3. The Triangular Theory of Love and Brand Love Paradigms

The affective core of the questionnaire builds upon Robert Sternberg’s (1986) Triangular Theory of Love (comprising intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment), as translated into consumer psychology by Carroll and Ahuvia (2006), Batra, Ahuvia, and Bagozzi (2012), and Bagozzi, Batra, and Ahuvia (2017). In consumer research, brand love is recognized as a high-order bond that surpasses general brand satisfaction or favorable attitudes. By extending this construct to nations (Barnes et al., 2014; Yadav et al., 2023), the model posits that individuals can project interpersonal relational dynamics onto geographic and cultural bodies. When tourists perceive an alignment between their own core values and the identity of the host nation, their emotional attachment intensifies into passion and love, yielding powerful behavioral loyalty and proactive brand ambassadorship.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the instrument was rigorously examined by Yadav, Paul, and Mittal (2023) following standard criteria established in multivariate psychometrics (Hair et al., 2010; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The scale was tested on a representative sample of international tourists visiting cultural and heritage circuits in India, ensuring authentic cross-national engagement.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Convergent validity demonstrates that individual items measuring a specific latent construct share a high proportion of common variance. In this measurement model, convergent validity was confirmed through three primary psychometric metrics:

• Standardized Factor Loadings: All standardized item factor loadings on their designated latent factors exceeded the conservative threshold of 0.70 (with significance at p < 0.001), indicating that each item reliably reflects its targeted latent dimension.
• Average Variance Extracted (AVE): The AVE values for each of the seven latent constructs met or surpassed the recommended benchmark of 0.50 (Hair et al., 2010), demonstrating that more than 50% of the variance observed in the indicators is accounted for by the underlying latent construct rather than measurement error.
• Composite Reliability: As detailed in the reliability evaluation, high composite reliability coefficients further supported solid convergent validity across all dimensions.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity assesses whether the seven latent factors are empirically unique and do not exhibit excessive overlap. Yadav et al. evaluated discriminant validity using the standard Fornell-Larcker (1981) criterion. The analysis confirmed that for every latent construct in the model, the square root of the AVE was strictly greater than the correlation coefficients between that construct and any other construct in the measurement model (i.e., AVE > squared inter-construct correlations). This confirmed that although the four experience subscales (Sensory, Affective, Behavioral, Intellectual) are conceptually interrelated antecedents, they represent distinct experiential dimensions that diverge clearly from Nation Brand Love, Nation Brand Loyalty, and Positive Word-of-Mouth.

Nomological and Predictive Validity

The model demonstrated strong nomological and predictive validity within the structural equation modeling (SEM) framework. The empirical paths from the experiential sub-dimensions to Nation Brand Love, and from Nation Brand Love to both Nation Brand Loyalty and Positive Word-of-Mouth, were statistically significant and aligned with established behavioral theories. Crucially, mediation analysis corroborated that Nation Brand Love acts as a potent full or partial mediator, significantly enhancing the explained variance (R²) in tourists’ long-term loyalty and willingness to recommend the nation.

Reliability

The internal consistency and scale reliability of the Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love–Model Questionnaire were established using both classical test theory metrics (Cronbach’s alpha) and modern structural equation modeling indices (Composite Reliability).

Cronbach’s Alpha (α)

Across the seven latent subscales, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from 0.661 to 0.849. In psychological and marketing research involving multidimensional and exploratory adaptation of place-brand constructs, alpha values above 0.60 to 0.70 are widely accepted as indicative of satisfactory to high internal consistency (Hair et al., 2010). The obtained values confirm that the items within each respective subscale correlate consistently with one another without exhibiting excessive item redundancy.

Composite Reliability (CR)

Because Cronbach’s alpha can underestimate reliability in multi-item scales that deviate from strict tau-equivalence, Yadav et al. calculated Composite Reliability (CR) values for all latent factors. The CR scores across the constructs ranged remarkably high, from 0.91 to 0.95. All values significantly exceeded the universally recommended minimum threshold of 0.70, indicating exceptional latent construct reliability and confirming that the measurement error associated with each latent construct was minimal.

Factor Analysis

To substantiate the underlying theoretical dimensions and evaluate construct operationalization, Yadav, Paul, and Mittal (2023) conducted a comprehensive Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) using structural equation modeling software.

Structural Fit Indices

The empirical measurement model specifying 21 observed indicators loading onto seven correlated latent factors demonstrated exceptional fit with the field data collected from international tourists. The observed goodness-of-fit indices conformed closely to the strict criteria recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Hair et al. (2010):

• Chi-Square / Degrees of Freedom (χ²/df): The model yielded a Chi-square statistic of χ² = 192.4 with 90 degrees of freedom (df = 90), resulting in a normed chi-square ratio (χ²/df) of 2.138. In structural equation modeling, a ratio between 1.0 and 3.0 indicates a parsimonious and well-fitting model.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): The RMSEA was calculated at 0.059. Because values below 0.06 reflect close approximate fit and values below 0.08 indicate acceptable fit, this index confirms low discrepancy between the implied model and population covariance.
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): The CFI was recorded at 0.96, comfortably exceeding the widely accepted 0.95 benchmark for superior model fit relative to the null independence model.
• Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI): The GFI achieved a value of 0.95, surpassing the standard 0.90 cut-off and verifying that a high proportion of variance and covariance is successfully captured by the measurement architecture.

Factor Loadings and Parameter Estimates

All 21 manifest items loaded robustly onto their designated latent constructs with standardized parameter estimates exceeding 0.70. Furthermore, all critical ratios (t-values) associated with these factor loadings were statistically significant at p < 0.001. No cross-loadings or anomalous error covariances were required to achieve statistical fit, demonstrating that the seven-factor specification represents an empirically stable and theoretically sound measurement structure.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Complete Tool Name: Antecedents and Outcomes of Nation Brand Love–Model Questionnaire
• Alternative Names: Nation Brand Love Measurement Model (Yadav et al., 2023)
• Test Type: Original multidimensional psychometric survey / inventory based on structural equation modeling (SEM)
• Theoretical Basis: Experiential Marketing Framework (Brakus et al., 2009), Destination Brand Love (Barnes et al., 2014), Consumer-Brand Relationship Theory (Bagozzi et al., 2017)
• Item Count: 21 total items distributed across 7 distinct subscales
• Subscale Architecture:
  • Sensory Nation Brand Experience (sensory stimulation: sights, sounds, scents, tastes)
  • Affective Nation Brand Experience (emotions, sentimental feelings, moods)
  • Behavioral Nation Brand Experience (physical activity, participatory behaviors, bodily engagement)
  • Intellectual Nation Brand Experience (curiosity, mental stimulation, cognitive expansion)
  • Nation Brand Love (passionate emotional bond, deep affection, self-brand connection)
  • Nation Brand Loyalty (revisit intentions, ongoing cultural/commercial commitment)
  • Positive Word-of-Mouth (advocacy, peer recommendations, active brand defense)
• Response Format: Standard 5-point Likert scale:
  • 1 = Strongly Disagree
  • 2 = Disagree
  • 3 = Neutral / Neither Agree nor Disagree
  • 4 = Agree
  • 5 = Strongly Agree
• Administration Mode: Self-administered paper-and-pencil questionnaire or computerized web-based survey
• Target Population: Adult international travelers, cross-border tourists, cultural visitors, and expatriates (aged 18 and older)
• Estimated Completion Time: Approximately 7 to 10 minutes
• Scoring Guidelines: Construct scores are computed by calculating the arithmetic mean or summative composite of the indicator items for each subscale. Higher mean scores indicate greater sensory/cognitive engagement, stronger nation brand love, higher destination loyalty, or elevated advocacy. In complex research, composite latent factor scores are modeled using structural equation modeling (SEM) software (e.g., AMOS, SmartPLS, R lavaan).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

• Year of Formal Publication: 2023
• Commercial Status: Non-commercial; designed strictly for academic, scientific, and public policy research
• Administration Fee: Free of charge for academic, educational, and non-commercial scientific applications
• Copyright & Permissions: The questionnaire model and its original publication are copyrighted by Emerald Publishing Limited and the contributing authors (Rohit Yadav, Justin Paul, and Amit Mittal). Researchers seeking to reproduce the full questionnaire, adapt its wording for different nation settings, or deploy it in large-scale empirical studies should contact the corresponding author, Dr. Amit Mittal ([email protected]), Chitkara Business School, Chitkara University, Punjab, India. Proper bibliographic attribution of the original 2023 International Marketing Review article is mandatory in all academic reports, theses, and publications.

References

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• Barnes, S. J., Mattsson, J., & Sørensen, F. (2014). Destination brand love: The role of the senses, emotional solidarity and destination loyalty. Tourism Management, 45, 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.11.002
• Batra, R., Ahuvia, A., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2012). Brand love. Journal of Marketing, 76(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1509/jm.09.0339
• Brakus, J. J., Schmitt, B. H., & Zarantonello, L. (2009). Brand experience: what is it? How is it measured? Does it affect loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 73(3), 52–68. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.73.3.52
• Carroll, B. A., & Ahuvia, A. C. (2006). Some antecedents and outcomes of brand love. Marketing Letters, 17(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-006-4219-2
• Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
• Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
• Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. A. (1974). An Approach to Environmental Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93(2), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119
• Yadav, R., Paul, J., & Mittal, A. (2023). Impact of nation brand experience on nation brand loyalty, and positive WOM in a changing environment: The role of nation brand love. International Marketing Review, 40(1), 28–48. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-05-2021-0173

Items of the Scale