Test of Self-Conscious Affect -TOSCA

1. Abstract

The Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) is a premier scenario-based psychometric instrument designed to capture individual differences in the proneness to experience core self-conscious emotions: primarily shame and guilt, alongside subsidiary dimensions including externalization of blame, emotional detachment, alpha pride (pride in self), and beta pride (pride in behavior). Originating from the groundbreaking theoretical formulations of Helen Block Lewis and developed empirically by June Price Tangney and colleagues, the TOSCA series—encompassing the original TOSCA (1989), TOSCA-2 (Tangney & Dearing, 2002), and TOSCA-3 (Tangney, Dearing, Wagner, & Gramzow, 2000), along with short-form adaptations—circumvents the methodological vulnerabilities of traditional adjective checklist measures. Rather than asking respondents to define abstract affective states, the instrument presents brief, ecologically valid scenarios drawn from daily social and occupational contexts, eliciting likelihood ratings across distinct, phenomenologically defined affective and cognitive reaction profiles.

Across versions, the tool presents between 11 (short forms) and 16 (full forms) scenarios, each followed by multiple sub-responses rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Not likely) to 5 (Very likely). Psychometric investigations consistently confirm robust internal consistency for shame-proneness (Cronbach’s α typically spanning .76 to .88) and guilt-proneness (α typically spanning .70 to .83), accompanied by stable test-retest reliability over multi-month intervals. Construct validity studies reveal a critical empirical divergence: shame-proneness systematically correlates with internalizing psychopathologies, depression, low self-esteem, maladaptive perfectionism, and destructive anger expressions, whereas TOSCA-assessed guilt-proneness demonstrates robust associations with empathic perspective-taking, constructive conflict resolution, reparative behaviors, and moral conscientiousness. Factor analyses broadly substantiate oblique multi-dimensional structures reflecting distinct behavioral and cognitive orientations toward interpersonal missteps. As a cornerstone of contemporary affective science and clinical assessment, the TOSCA remains an indispensable instrument for delineating functional versus dysfunctional emotional processing.

2. Keywords

Test of Self-Conscious Affect, TOSCA, shame-proneness, guilt-proneness, moral emotions, self-conscious affect, externalization, reparative behavior, psychometrics, June Price Tangney

3. Authors

The Test of Self-Conscious Affect was originated and developed through the systematic research program directed by June Price Tangney, Ph.D., University Professor of Psychology at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, United States. Dr. Tangney is globally recognized as one of the foremost authorities on the psychology of moral and self-conscious emotions, moral development, criminal rehabilitation, and self-forgiveness.

Key collaborative co-authors across the developmental trajectory and psychometric iterations of the instrument include:

• Patricia E. Wagner, Ph.D.: Longtime research associate and psychometrician at George Mason University, instrumental in the development, item drafting, and initial standardization of the original TOSCA, the TOSCA-A (Adolescent), and the TOSCA-C (Child) variants.
• Richard H. Gramzow, Ph.D.: Experimental social psychologist whose methodological contributions at George Mason University guided early structural validation and data analytic modeling of attributional dimensions within self-conscious affect.
• Ronda L. Dearing, Ph.D.: Senior Research Scientist affiliated with the Research Institute on Addictions (University at Buffalo, State University of New York) and co-author of the seminal volume Shame and Guilt (Guilford Press, 2002); central to the introduction of the ruminative guilt scale and refined subscales in TOSCA-2 and TOSCA-3.

Institutional Origin: Department of Psychology, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA.

4. Purpose

The primary purpose of the Test of Self-Conscious Affect is to provide an ecologically sound, methodologically rigorous, and phenomenologically precise assessment of individual differences in self-conscious emotional proneness. Prior to the introduction of the TOSCA, empirical psychological literature on shame and guilt was chronically undermined by serious measurement artifacts. Early psychological scales primarily utilized adjective checklists (e.g., asking respondents how frequently they felt “guilty” or “ashamed”) or global semantic ratings. Psychometric studies subsequently uncovered that in everyday colloquial English, lay individuals routinely confound the terms “shame” and “guilt”, often using them interchangeably or employing “guilt” when describing visceral experiences of shame. Consequently, traditional adjective checklists consistently exhibited high, artificial collinearity between the constructs and yielded contradictory findings regarding psychological adaptiveness.

Dr. Tangney and colleagues developed the TOSCA to bypass semantic confusion by grounding evaluation in concrete, contextualized experiences. Instead of asking participants to self-diagnose lexical labels, the TOSCA exposes individuals to realistic vignettes representing day-to-day interpersonal infractions, ethical dilemmas, performance failures, and social embarrassments. Respondents indicate their likelihood of reacting through specific cognitive, affective, or behavioral trajectories that correspond to established theoretical models of moral affect. By standardizing the evocative scenario while simultaneously offering independent behavioral responses for shame, guilt, externalization, and detachment, the scale isolates pure dispositional tendencies.

In clinical contexts, the TOSCA serves a vital diagnostic and formulation purpose. Clinical research establishes that dispositional shame-proneness acts as a potent transdiagnostic vulnerability factor for major depressive disorder, generalized social anxiety, borderline personality organization, post-traumatic stress disorder, self-harm, eating disorders, and destructive externalized hostility (shame-rage spirals). Guilt-proneness, conversely, represents a psychological resource associated with moral development, empathy, psychological resilience, and constructive interpersonal functioning. Differentiating these two emotional patterns enables clinicians to identify patients who respond to failure with global self-condemnation versus those who evaluate specific actionable behaviors, thereby informing targeted psychotherapeutic interventions such as Compassion-Focused Therapy (CFT) and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

In social, developmental, criminological, and organizational psychology, the TOSCA is widely used to investigate the roots of ethical decision-making, antisocial behavior, restorative justice, leadership integrity, substance misuse, and intimate partner violence. By delineating between adaptive behavioral culpability and maladaptive global self-devaluation, the instrument provides an empirical foundation for interventions aimed at reducing recidivism, mitigating toxic workplace climates, and cultivating pro-social behaviors.

5. Psychological Construct

The TOSCA operationalizes a sophisticated multi-dimensional framework of self-conscious affect. Self-conscious emotions are distinguished from primary emotions (such as fear, anger, or sadness) by their fundamental requirement for self-reflection, self-evaluation, and self-awareness against internal or externalized standards, rules, and goals (SRGs). The subscales embedded within the TOSCA capture distinct structural components of this self-evaluative matrix:

Shame-Proneness

Shame is conceptualized as an intensely painful, negative affective state characterized by global, negative self-evaluation. In shame, the entire self becomes the central object of scrutiny and condemnation (“I am bad, defective, or worthless”). Phenomenologically, the experience of shame is accompanied by a sense of shrinking, feeling small, exposed, powerless, and wanting to disappear or sink through the floor. In the TOSCA, shame-proneness reflects a dispositional tendency to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global self-deficits. Behavioral correlates include social withdrawal, avoidance, concealment, and passive submission. When the individual cannot escape the perceived scrutiny of others, acute shame frequently transforms into defensive, externalized anger or “humiliated fury.”

Guilt-Proneness

Guilt is defined as an unpleasant emotional state arising from negative evaluations directed specifically toward an action, behavior, or failure to act, rather than toward the global self (“I did something bad, harmful, or unethical”). The core focus of guilt is behavioral and agentic. Because the self remains fundamentally intact, guilt induces tension, remorse, and regret rather than paralysis or existential worthlessness. In the TOSCA, guilt-proneness represents an inclination toward constructive action tendencies: confessing, apologizing, rectifying damage, and engaging in proactive interpersonal restitution. Guilt fosters prosocial repair, empathy toward the injured party, and adaptive self-regulation without degrading core self-esteem.

Externalization of Blame

Externalization represents a defensive, self-protective cognitive attribution wherein an individual projects the cause of an adverse outcome onto external circumstances, other people, or environmental impediments (“It was not my fault; the other person caused this”). This dimension measures an unwillingness to accept personal responsibility for errors, serving as a psychological buffer against threats to the self. High externalization scores correlate strongly with trait anger, hostility, borderline traits, and narcissistic vulnerability.

Emotional Detachment / Minimization

Detachment reflects an emotional stance of indifference, trivialization, or active cognitive minimization toward the consequences of a negative interpersonal event (“It was just an accident; nobody should care; it’s harmless”). While externalization actively shifts fault to an external target, detachment denies the emotional significance of the transgression altogether. In interpersonal and clinical research, excessive detachment relates to callous-unemotional traits, low affective empathy, and avoidance of intimacy.

Ruminative Guilt

Introduced in the TOSCA-2 and sustained in specialized affective studies, ruminative guilt captures a maladaptive, perseverative form of guilt. While standard TOSCA guilt is active and problem-focused, ruminative guilt reflects unresolvable, intrusive, repetitive cognitive looping regarding past transgressions, accompanied by intense anxiety and subjective helplessness (“I can never forgive myself; I keep thinking about how I ruined this”). This construct forms an important empirical bridge between guilt and neuroticism, capturing instances where reparative action is unavailable or perceived as perpetually inadequate.

Alpha Pride and Beta Pride

In select vignettes reflecting successful outcomes (e.g., receiving a bonus, repaying debts), the TOSCA incorporates positive self-conscious affect based on Michael Lewis’s taxonomy: Alpha Pride refers to pride focused globally on the self (“I am a brilliant, attractive, superior person”), which aligns theoretically with hubristic pride and grandiose narcissism; Beta Pride refers to pride focused on specific, effortful behaviors or accomplishments (“My hard work paid off; I handled that task well”), aligning with authentic pride and healthy self-efficacy.

6. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical architecture of the Test of Self-Conscious Affect is fundamentally rooted in the clinical and phenomenological paradigm formulated by psychoanalyst Helen Block Lewis in her seminal work Shame and Guilt in Neurosis (1971). Lewis proposed that although shame and guilt often arise from identical objective eliciting situations (e.g., lying, hurting another’s feelings, failing a task), they are distinguished by a fundamental differential emphasis regarding the role of the self versus the behavior:

“The experience of shame is directly about the self, which is the focus of evaluation. In guilt, the self is not the central object of negative evaluation, but rather the thing done is the focus.” — Helen Block Lewis (1971)

This critical distinction was integrated into cognitive-attributional psychology by Michael Lewis (1992) and empirically systematized by June Price Tangney (1990, 1992; Tangney & Dearing, 2002). According to this cognitive-attributional framework, individuals maintain internal sets of standards, rules, and goals (SRGs). When an individual detects a failure to live up to these standards, a secondary attributional process occurs:

• Internal, Global, Unstable/Stable Self-Attribution (Shame): The individual concludes, “I am fundamentally inadequate.” The self is both the judge and the judged object. Because the entire self is implicated, the individual experiences an immediate threat to self-integrity, leading to cognitive paralysis, autonomic arousal, feelings of exposure, and withdrawal behaviors designed to prevent further social devaluation.
• Internal, Specific, Unstable Behavioral Attribution (Guilt): The individual concludes, “What I did violated my moral or interpersonal code.” The self retains agency and acts as the observer evaluating a distinct, bounded action. Because the behavioral action is perceived as modifiable, the emotional energy is channeled into corrective, reparative, and pro-social compensatory actions.

This framework is closely allied with Bernard Weiner’s attributional theory of motivation and emotion. In Weiner’s taxonomy, attributing failure to global, uncontrollable internal factors (e.g., lack of innate ability or core worth) produces despair, humiliation, and resignation (isomorphic with shame), whereas attributing failure to specific, controllable internal factors (e.g., effort or specific behavioral miscalculations) produces guilt and motivates corrective effort.

Furthermore, the TOSCA framework intersects directly with evolutionary theories of moral emotion (e.g., Gilbert, 2000; Baumeister, Stillwell, & Heatherton, 1994). Evolutionary psychologists conceptualize guilt as an interpersonal adaptation designed to preserve valuable communal relationships and maintain social bonding by motivating restitution and reassuring allies that one values the relationship. Conversely, shame represents an ancient social-threat response mechanism triggered by social devaluation or subordination within a status hierarchy, signaling defeat, defusing aggression from dominant conspecifics through appeasement, or promoting physical withdrawal from social visibility.

7. Validity

The TOSCA series has undergone extensive psychometric validation across diverse clinical, educational, community, forensic, and cross-cultural samples. Its validity profile demonstrates remarkable construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive capabilities.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Extensive empirical studies by Tangney and colleagues (1992, 2000, 2002), as well as independent evaluations (e.g., Woien et al., 2003; Fontaine et al., 2001), demonstrate robust convergent validity patterns that sharply dissociate shame from guilt:

• Shame-Proneness: Consistently correlates positively with symptom checklists measuring depression (typically r = .40 to .60), trait anxiety (r = .35 to .50), psychological distress, low self-esteem (r = -.45 to -.65 with Rosenberg Self-Esteem), self-blame, maladaptive perfectionism, borderline personality features, and eating pathology. In interpersonal domains, shame-proneness correlates positively with personal distress (the self-oriented, aversive reaction to others’ suffering), externalization of blame, resentment, suspiciousness, and destructive anger expressions (e.g., indirect aggression, verbal outbursts, and unexpressed resentment).
• Guilt-Proneness: Demonstrates a profoundly divergent, pro-social nomological network. It correlates positively with empathic perspective-taking (r = .35 to .55 on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index), other-oriented empathic concern, constructive anger expression (e.g., non-hostile discussion and problem resolution), self-forgiveness, moral reasoning, and constructive conflict resolution. Importantly, TOSCA guilt displays near-zero or mildly negative correlations with global self-esteem and depressive symptomatology once its shared variance with shame is statistically partialled out.

Discriminant Validity

A critical test of discriminant validity involves the relationship between shame, guilt, and social desirability. In early validation studies (Tangney et al., 1992), TOSCA shame showed essentially null associations with standard social desirability measures (e.g., Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale), indicating that individuals do not systematically conceal dispositional shame in scenario-based contexts. While TOSCA guilt displays small-to-moderate positive correlations with social desirability (r ≈ .15 to .30), structural equation modeling confirms that this reflects substantive moral conscientiousness rather than mere response bias. Furthermore, the externalization and detachment subscales demonstrate clear discriminant separation from guilt, correlating negatively with empathy and positively with Machiavellianism and narcissistic defensiveness.

Predictive and Ecological Validity

In behavioral and longitudinal studies, TOSCA guilt-proneness reliably predicts actual reparative actions in laboratory economic games (such as the Public Goods Game and Trust Game), higher rates of charitable donation, reduced criminal recidivism among incarcerated populations (Tangney, Stuewig, & Martinez, 2014), and lower rates of adolescent substance abuse. In contrast, TOSCA shame-proneness prospectively predicts relational dysfunction, aggressive outbursts following laboratory failure inductions, and increased vulnerability to psychiatric relapses in substance-use recovery cohorts.

8. Reliability

The TOSCA has demonstrated robust reliability across numerous psychometric assessments in general and clinical populations:

Internal Consistency

Standardized estimates of internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) across major iterations of the instrument consistently meet or exceed accepted psychometric benchmarks for research and screening:

• Shame-Proneness: Demonstrates high internal consistency across versions: TOSCA-1 (α = .76 to .84), TOSCA-2 (α = .77 to .85), and TOSCA-3 (α = .78 to .88). In large college and adult community samples, alpha coefficients for shame consistently cluster around .80 to .84.
• Guilt-Proneness: Generally exhibits acceptable to good internal consistency: TOSCA-1 (α = .69 to .74), TOSCA-2 (α = .70 to .81), and TOSCA-3 (α = .70 to .83). Because TOSCA guilt taps multiple behavioral responses (confession, apologizing, cognitive awareness, proactive repair) across widely varying contextual scenarios, its alpha is naturally moderated by scenario heterogeneity but remains psychometrically solid.
• Externalization: Demonstrates acceptable internal consistency, with alpha coefficients typically ranging between .72 and .79 across adult samples.
• Detachment: Yields modest internal consistency (α = .65 to .75), reflecting the brief, varied nature of detachment items across distinct scenario contexts.
• Ruminative Guilt: In TOSCA-2 validation studies, the experimental ruminative guilt scale achieved internal consistency coefficients between .74 and .82.

Test-Retest Reliability

Temporal stability evaluations confirm that the TOSCA measures stable, trait-like dispositional proneness rather than transient emotional states. In longitudinal investigations evaluating intervals ranging from 3 to 14 weeks (Tangney et al., 1990; Woien et al., 2003):

• Test-retest coefficients for Shame-Proneness range from r = .74 to r = .85.
• Test-retest coefficients for Guilt-Proneness range from r = .68 to r = .79.
• Test-retest coefficients for Externalization range from r = .70 to r = .81.

These values demonstrate excellent dispositional stability across the lifespan, supporting the operationalization of shame- and guilt-proneness as deeply embedded affective-cognitive traits.

9. Factor Analysis

Structural evaluations of the TOSCA via Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) have provided vital empirical insights into the factorial architecture of self-conscious affect.

Exploratory Factor Analyses

Initial principal components and principal axis factoring analyses conducted during the scale’s development (Tangney, 1990; Tangney et al., 1992) consistently extracted distinct factors corresponding to the target constructs. When items across all vignettes are entered into EFA with oblique rotation (e.g., Promax or Oblimin), shame responses and guilt responses reliably load onto separate, prominent factors. Shame items uniformly display strong, clean primary loadings (typically ranging from .45 to .75) on a core shame factor, with negligible cross-loadings onto guilt. Similarly, guilt responses load robustly on an independent guilt dimension. Auxiliary factors distinctly capture externalization of blame and detachment/minimization.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Model Fit

Subsequent structural equation modeling and CFA studies (e.g., Woien, Ernst, Patock-Peckham, & Nagoshi, 2003; Fontaine, Luyten, De Boeck, & Corveleyn, 2001; Luyten et al., 2007) have rigorously compared competing structural models:

• Single-Factor Model: A global “negative self-conscious affect” model yields poor fit across all conventional indices (χ²/df > 5.0, CFI < .70, RMSEA > .10), rejecting the premise that shame and guilt are manifestations of a unified dysphoric trait.
• Two-Factor Model (Shame vs. Guilt): Substantially improves fit but fails to account for the systematic variance contributed by defensive externalization and detachment items.
• Multi-Factor Oblique Model: A four-factor model (Shame, Guilt, Externalization, Detachment) or six-factor model (incorporating Pride dimensions) yields acceptable to good fit indices in adult cohorts: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) ≤ .055, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) ≥ .90, and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) ≥ .89.

Psychometricians note an inherent structural complexity in scenario-based instruments: because multiple sub-item responses are nested within each common vignette stimulus, a shared method variance (scenario effect) is naturally introduced. Methodological studies that incorporate bifactor modeling or correlate error terms among items belonging to the same scenario demonstrate excellent structural fit, confirming that the psychological traits of shame- and guilt-proneness represent the dominant sources of reliable variance.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Test of Self-Conscious Affect operates as a standardized, paper-and-pencil or computerized, self-administered psychometric questionnaire. Its structural and administrative specifications include:

• Test Type: Scenario-based, multidimensional self-report inventory.
• Target Population: Adults and adolescents aged 16 and older (specialized child [TOSCA-C] and adolescent [TOSCA-A] downward extensions exist with age-tailored language).
• Vignette Structure: Each item begins with a brief, real-life situational vignette depicting common everyday events (e.g., breaking an object at work, standing up a friend for lunch, accidentally hitting an animal while driving). Crucially, the scenarios encompass interpersonal infractions, private rule-breaking, performance blunders, and ethical transgressions.
• Response Structure: Each vignette is immediately followed by a series of distinct, phenomenologically defined possible reactions (typically 4 to 6 responses per scenario) presented in counterbalanced or randomized sequence. Each reaction represents one specific subscale: Shame (S), Guilt (G), Externalization (E), Detachment (D), Ruminative Guilt (RG), Alpha Pride (AP), or Beta Pride (BP).
• Response Scale: Respondents evaluate each reaction option independently using a 5-point Likert-type scale:
  • 1 = Not likely
  • 2 = Slightly likely
  • 3 = Moderately likely
  • 4 = Very likely
  • 5 = Extremely / Almost certain (or anchor continuum: 1 = Not likely to 5 = Very likely)
• Critical Scoring Feature: The TOSCA does not force a categorical choice among options. A respondent rates their endorsement of every single reaction independently, permitting an individual to report high shame and high guilt, or high guilt and low externalization, reflecting natural affective complexity.
• Scoring Algorithm: Continuous subscale scores are computed by summing the numerical ratings across the corresponding items for each respective dimension:
  • Shame-Proneness Score: Sum of all Shame (S) response ratings across all scenarios.
  • Guilt-Proneness Score: Sum of all Guilt (G) response ratings across all scenarios.
  • Externalization Score: Sum of all Externalization (E) response ratings across all scenarios.
  • Detachment Score: Sum of all Detachment (D) response ratings across all scenarios.
  • Ruminative Guilt Score: Sum of Ruminative Guilt (RG) ratings (where administered).
• Total Administration Time: Approximately 10 to 15 minutes for the 11-scenario short form; 15 to 25 minutes for the 16-scenario full form.

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Test of Self-Conscious Affect was formally inaugurated with the original TOSCA authored by June Price Tangney, Patricia Wagner, and Richard Gramzow in 1989 at George Mason University, followed by widespread academic dissemination in 1990. Subsequent major psychometric revisions include the TOSCA-2 (2002) and the TOSCA-3 (2000), alongside the short-form adaptation (Tangney, Dearing, Wagner, & Gramzow, 2000).

Copyright and Permissibility: The TOSCA and its direct derivatives (TOSCA-2, TOSCA-3, TOSCA-A, TOSCA-C) are copyrighted intellectual property of Dr. June Price Tangney and George Mason University. However, Dr. Tangney has maintained a long-standing academic policy granting free, open permission to academic researchers, graduate students, and non-profit behavioral clinicians to utilize the instrument for non-commercial research, theses, dissertations, and clinical investigations without licensing fees. Commercial applications, widespread reproduction in published books, or incorporation into commercial software platforms require explicit formal authorization from the copyright holders. Full assessment protocols, administration manuals, and scoring keys can be requested directly from Dr. Tangney’s laboratory at George Mason University or accessed through authorized institutional repositories.

12. References

• Alton, K. L. (2012). Exploring the guilt-proneness of non-traditional students (Master’s thesis). Southern Illinois University Carbondale, OpenSIUC Theses. https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/theses/885/
• Atrifard, M. (2004). Relationship between brain/behavior and being prone to shame and guilt (Doctoral dissertation). Tarbiyat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran.
• Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243
• Fontaine, J. R., Luyten, P., De Boeck, P., & Corveleyn, J. (2001). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect: Internal structure, reliability and validity in a Dutch-speaking sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(2), 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00028-1
• Gilbert, P. (2000). The relationship of shame, social anxiety and depression: The role of the evaluation of social rank. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 7(3), 174–189. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327752JPA7902_07
• Scherer, M. (2010). Forgiveness and the bottle: Promoting self-forgiveness with alcohol misuse (Doctoral dissertation). Virginia Commonwealth University, VCU Scholars Compass, Paper 2109. https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/2109/
• Tangney, J. P. (1990). Assessing individual differences in proneness to shame and guilt: Development of the Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.102
• Tangney, J. P. (1992). Situational determinants of shame and guilt in young adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(2), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167292182011
• Tangney, J. P., Boone, A. L., & Dearing, R. L. (2005). Forgiving the self: Conceptual issues and empirical findings. In E. L. Worthington, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of forgiveness (pp. 143–158). Routledge.
• Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. Guilford Press.
• Tangney, J. P., Dearing, R. L., Wagner, P. E., & Gramzow, R. (2000). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect-3 (TOSCA-3). George Mason University.
• Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Martinez, A. G. (2014). Two faces of shame: The roles of shame and guilt in predicting recidivism. Psychological Science, 25(3), 799–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613508790
• Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1989). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect. George Mason University.
• Woien, S. L., Ernst, H. A. H., Patock-Peckham, J. A., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2003). Validation of the TOSCA to measure shame and guilt. Personality and Individual Differences, 35(2), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00192-5

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)