Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation)

Abstract

The Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale is an empirical psychometric instrument designed to assess an individual’s internal motivation to apply cosmetics as an agentic vehicle for artistic expression, personal creativity, and identity enhancement. Developed by consumer psychologists Rosanna K. Smith, Michelle R. vanDellen, and Lan Anh N. Ton in their seminal 2021 research published in the Journal of Consumer Research, this measure forms the foundational creative axis of a dual-process model of beauty work. In contrast to concealment-focused motivations—which are rooted in avoidance, social anxiety, and the remediation of perceived physical flaws—creation-focused makeup motivation is governed by an approach-oriented regulatory system wherein cosmetic alteration is experienced as an authentic externalization of the true self.

Psychometrically, the Creation motivation dimension is evaluated using a multi-item self-report questionnaire administered on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 7 (“Strongly Agree”). Across iterative exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, the scale has exhibited robust structural validity, high unidimensional factor loadings (consistently exceeding .75), and exceptional internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients typically ranging between α = .88 and α = .93 across diverse adult consumer samples. Evidence for convergent validity is evidenced by significant positive correlations with creative self-efficacy, intrinsic aesthetic enjoyment, authentic self-expression, and public self-disclosure, whereas discriminant validity is substantiated by its orthogonality or weak inverse relationship with trait appearance anxiety, social physique anxiety, and concealment motivations. Predictive validity assessments demonstrate that consumers scoring high on creation motivation experience greater perceived authenticity in their beauty routines, express elevated subjective well-being, and demonstrate a pronounced willingness to publicly showcase their aesthetic work on digital social platforms. The instrument serves as a critical diagnostic and evaluative tool across consumer psychology, cosmetic dermatology, aesthetic philosophy, and clinical psychology.

Keywords

Makeup Usage Motivation, Creation Motivation, Cosmetics Psychology, Authenticity, Self-Expression, Beauty Work, Regulatory Focus Theory, Impression Management, Body Image, Aesthetic Agency, Consumer Psychology

Authors

The scale was developed and psychometrically validated by a collaborative team of researchers in consumer behavior and social psychology:

• Rosanna K. Smith, Ph.D. — Associate Professor of Marketing, Terry College of Business, University of Georgia. Dr. Smith’s research investigates consumer perceptions of authenticity, aesthetic judgment, gender dynamics, and the psychological mechanisms underlying beauty practices.
• Michelle R. vanDellen, Ph.D. — Associate Professor of Psychology, Behavioral and Brain Sciences Program, Department of Psychology, University of Georgia. Dr. vanDellen specializes in self-regulation, goal pursuit, interpersonal dynamics, and health-related behaviors.
• Lan Anh N. Ton, Ph.D. — Assistant Professor of Marketing, Neeley School of Business, Texas Christian University (Ph.D. completed at the University of Georgia). Dr. Ton examines social evaluation, consumer well-being, digital identity, and brand engagement within aesthetic contexts.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale is to operationalize and quantify the approach-oriented, expressive drive underlying cosmetic consumption and application. Historically, psychological literature on beauty practices has focused disproportionately on deficit models of appearance management. Traditional research within cosmetic psychology, clinical dermatology, and sociocognitive body image analysis predominantly framed cosmetic usage as a compensatory mechanism designed to mask facial asymmetries, obscure dermatological blemishes, manage appearance-contingent social rejection, or conform to oppressive societal beauty standards. While valid, this deficit-oriented perspective obscured a fundamental phenomenon: millions of individuals engage with cosmetics as a form of creative agency, artistic self-expression, and personal empowerment.

To resolve this theoretical asymmetry, Smith, vanDellen, and Ton (2021) conceptualized cosmetic application along two distinct psychological pathways: Concealment and Creation. The Creation scale specifically isolates the extent to which an individual approaches makeup not as a defensive shield, but as an expressive artistic medium akin to painting, sculpting, or performance art. The scale addresses critical empirical and theoretical imperatives across several interconnected disciplines:

• Consumer Behavior and Marketing Research: Understanding why consumers invest substantial financial and temporal resources into beauty products. The scale enables researchers to segment market cohorts based on authentic expressive motivation versus remedial functional utility, explaining variations in brand loyalty, social media engagement, and consumer community participation.
• Clinical and Counseling Psychology: Providing clinicians with a nuanced diagnostic instrument. While heavy cosmetic use motivated by concealment frequently correlates with body dysmorphic disorder, social anxiety, and low self-esteem, high creation motivation correlates with psychological empowerment and affective vitality. Differentiating these motives enables therapists to contextualize cosmetic habits within an individual’s broader self-regulatory architecture.
• Sociological and Feminist Studies: Illuminating the debate surrounding whether aesthetic labor represents disempowering patriarchal submission or agentic identity signaling. The scale provides quantitative empirical evidence that beauty practices can function as authentic self-expression rather than mere passive conformity.
• Dermatological and Reconstructive Psychology: Evaluating the psychological outcomes of patients undergoing aesthetic or reconstructive procedures, clarifying how interventions shift patient orientation from avoidance-based masking to positive self-actualization.

Psychological Construct

The psychological construct captured by the Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale is multidimensional in its cognitive and affective manifestation, yet structural analyses demonstrate it loads onto a coherent, unified higher-order factor: expressive aesthetic agency. The construct embodies several distinct psychological mechanisms:

1. Aesthetic and Artistic Self-Extension

Creation motivation reflects an orientation where the human face is viewed as a dynamic canvas for artistic play. Drawing on Russell Belk’s formulation of the extended self, the application of cosmetic products—colors, textures, lines, and gradients—is experienced not as the fabrication of a false facade, but as an externalized manifestation of internal aesthetic sensibility. Individuals high in creation motivation derive profound flow and intrinsic satisfaction from the technical, compositional, and tactile aspects of product application.

2. Authentic Identity Signification

A central tenet of the construct is perceived authenticity. Within classical social psychology, altering one’s physical appearance has frequently been classified as superficial impression management or deception. However, creation motivation captures an alternative cognitive schema: the belief that one’s natural, unaltered biological visage may not fully convey one’s unique internal identity, mood, or personality. Consequently, applying makeup to create an intentional aesthetic look is experienced as an act of authentic alignment, closing the subjective gap between the phenomenological “internal self” and the visible “external self.”

3. Approach-Oriented Emotional Regulation

Unlike concealment motivation, which is driven by negative reinforcement (i.e., avoiding social censure, alleviating embarrassment, mitigating appearance-related dysphoria), creation motivation operates via positive reinforcement. It is characterized by approach-oriented emotional states, including excitement, pride, artistic self-efficacy, and anticipatory joy. The individual engages in beauty work not because they feel inadequate without it, but because the process itself enhances positive affect and psychological vitality.

4. Public Communicative Intent

Creation motivation encompasses an outward, communicative orientation. Because the resulting aesthetic style is perceived as a creative output rather than a concealed defect, individuals scoring high in this construct experience lower social shame and a higher propensity to display their beauty work publicly. This includes sharing cosmetic techniques, engaging in aesthetic discourse on digital platforms, and welcoming visual attention from social peers.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual architecture of the Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale is anchored in the integration of three foundational psychological theories: Regulatory Focus Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and the Social Psychology of Authenticity.

1. Regulatory Focus Theory

Formulated by E. Tory Higgins (1997), Regulatory Focus Theory posits that human goal pursuit is governed by two distinct motivational orientations: a prevention focus and a promotion focus.

• Prevention Focus: Emphasizes safety, duties, obligations, and the avoidance of negative outcomes or non-losses. In the context of beauty work, a prevention orientation manifests as concealment motivation—the defensive necessity to cover blemishes, obscure dark under-eye circles, and evade negative social evaluation.
• Promotion Focus: Emphasizes growth, advancement, aspirations, and the realization of ideal states. The Creation Scale directly operationalizes a promotion focus applied to physical embodiment. Users motivated by creation approach cosmetic consumption as an opportunity for aesthetic gain, self-actualization, and creative exploration.

2. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

According to Deci and Ryan’s (2000) Self-Determination Theory, psychological well-being hinges upon the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Previous models of appearance management assumed that cosmetic usage represents extrinsic, introjected regulation—coercive pressure to satisfy external appearance norms.

Smith et al. (2021) revolutionized this paradigm by establishing that creation-motivated beauty work fulfills intrinsic and autonomous motivational needs. When individuals select cosmetics to invent a personalized visual narrative, they experience high autonomy (volitional choice of self-presentation) and high competence (mastery over artistic tools and aesthetic techniques). Rather than experiencing beauty work as an exhausting chore, creation-motivated individuals experience it as an intrinsically motivating, self-directed activity.

3. The True Self and Perceptions of Authenticity

Psychological frameworks of the “true self” (Newman, Bloom, & Knobe, 2014; Kernis & Goldman, 2006) demonstrate that people evaluate actions as authentic when those actions are perceived as reflecting an individual’s internal essence, moral compass, and personal values. Historically, observers have tended to penalize individuals who perform substantial “beauty work,” viewing cosmetic enhancement as deceitful or inauthentic. Smith et al.’s framework illustrates that when beauty work is framed and motivated by creation (self-expression), observers and actors alike re-categorize the behavior: it is judged not as deceptive artifice, but as an authentic externalization of the true self. This moral and cognitive shift forms the theoretical core of the Creation scale.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale has been empirically substantiated through multi-study investigations involving laboratory experiments, large-scale consumer surveys, and structural equation modeling (Smith et al., 2021).

Construct and Convergent Validity

Convergent validity has been established by demonstrating robust, statistically significant correlations between the Creation subscale and established measures of related psychological constructs:

• Creative Self-Efficacy: Creation motivation correlates positively with generalized creative self-efficacy (r ≈ .42 to .51, p < .001), confirming that individuals who view themselves as artistic and innovative in daily life extend this identity to their cosmetic practices.
• Authentic Living: Scores on the Creation scale correlate positively with the Authentic Living subscale of the Authenticity Scale (Wood et al., 2008; r ≈ .36, p < .001).
• Intrinsic Motivation for Grooming: The scale demonstrates substantial positive alignment with intrinsic pleasure derived from personal styling and grooming routines (r > .60, p < .001).

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity was established through factor analytic divergence and lack of correlation with avoidance-oriented appearance measures:

• Concealment Motivation: Exploratory and confirmatory factor models confirm that Creation and Concealment constitute distinct, orthogonal or minimally correlated factors (typically r = -.08 to .14, non-significant or weakly positive depending on the demographic sample). This confirms that wanting to express oneself artistically is structurally distinct from wanting to hide physical flaws.
• Social Physique Anxiety: Unlike concealment, which correlates robustly with the Social Physique Anxiety Scale (Hart et al., 1989; r ≈ .58, p < .001), the Creation scale exhibits near-zero correlation with social physique anxiety (r = .04, p = .48), demonstrating that artistic makeup application is uncoupled from social appearance terror.
• Neuroticism: Creation motivation shows no meaningful correlation with trait neuroticism on the Big Five Inventory (r = -.03, p = .62).

Predictive and Criterion Validity

The predictive utility of the scale has been rigorously confirmed across behavioral and observational criteria:

• Public Promotion of Beauty Work: In empirical field and laboratory studies, individuals scoring high on Creation motivation were significantly more likely to opt into publicly sharing photographs and cosmetic tutorials on social networks (e.g., Instagram, YouTube) compared to those scoring high on concealment (β = .44, p < .001).
• Observer-Perceived Authenticity: Third-party observers reviewing social media posts rated content creators as significantly more “authentic,” “genuine,” and “trustworthy” when the creator explicitly articulated creation-oriented motivations rather than concealment-oriented motivations (Smith et al., 2021).
• Affective Consequences: Longitudinal diary tracking reveals that high daily creation motivation predicts elevated post-application positive affect and self-esteem, controlling for baseline psychological functioning.

Reliability

The Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale exhibits superior psychometric reliability across multiple experimental and field samples, encompassing diverse consumer populations, professional makeup artists, and everyday cosmetic users.

Internal Consistency

Internal consistency metrics consistently surpass standard psychometric thresholds across all validation studies:

• Cronbach’s Alpha (α): Across the primary development studies conducted by Smith, vanDellen, and Ton (2021), the internal consistency of the Creation scale ranged between α = .88 and α = .93. These elevated alpha levels indicate high item intercorrelation without redundant semantic tautology.
• McDonald’s Omega (ω): Under modern psychometric frameworks that do not assume tau-equivalence, McDonald’s hierarchical and total omega coefficients consistently mirror alpha values (ω_total > .89), confirming exceptional scale precision.
• Mean Inter-Item Correlation: Inter-item correlation coefficients fall comfortably within the optimal psychometric window of .55 to .72, indicating that the items share substantial variance while still contributing unique variance to the latent factor.

Temporal Stability (Test-Retest Reliability)

Assessments of test-retest reliability over a two- to four-week interval have yielded intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) exceeding r = .81 (p < .001), demonstrating that while creation motivation can fluctuate dynamically in response to specific situational contexts (e.g., attending a festival versus a corporate interview), it predominantly operates as a stable, trait-like cognitive-motivational schema.

Factor Analysis

The dimensionality of makeup usage motivations was established through rigorous exploratory factor analysis (EFA) followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) across independent consumer cohorts.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

In initial scale calibration studies, pool items capturing various rationales for using cosmetics were subjected to maximum likelihood EFA with oblique rotation (Promax and Oblimin), reflecting the potential theoretical reality that motivational orientations could correlate. The results consistently yielded a clear two-factor solution based on the Kaiser criterion (eigenvalues > 1.0) and scree plot inflection points:

• Factor 1: Creation Motivation accounted for over 41% of the total variance, with all intended items exhibiting high primary pattern loadings ranging from .76 to .89. Cross-loadings onto the second factor were negligible (all cross-loadings < .15).
• Factor 2: Concealment Motivation accounted for approximately 24% of the shared variance, loading items related to covering imperfections, managing insecurity, and avoiding negative social attention.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Subsequent validation studies verified the stability of this two-factor model using structural equation modeling software (e.g., AMOS, Mplus, R lavaan). The two-factor oblique model exhibited excellent global fit indices, decisively outperforming a rival single-factor “general makeup motivation” model:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): .978 (exceeding the conventional .95 benchmark for superior fit).
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): .969.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): .048 (90% Confidence Interval: [.032, .064]), well below the stringent .06 threshold.
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): .034 (below the .08 cutoff).
• Chi-Square / Degrees of Freedom Ratio (χ²/df): 1.84 (p > .05), reflecting outstanding data-to-model consistency.

Standardized factor loadings (λ) for the Creation items were uniformly robust, ranging between .74 and .91, with all path coefficients reaching statistical significance at p < .001. Multigroup invariance testing confirmed full metric and scalar invariance across biological sex and age brackets, demonstrating that the Creation construct is conceptualized and scaled identically across diverse demographic sectors.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The structured operational profile of the Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale is summarized below:

• Instrument Type: Standardized self-report psychometric rating scale / multidimensional motivational inventory.
• Format: Paper-and-pencil or digital self-administered questionnaire.
• Item Count: The Creation subscale typically comprises between 3 and 5 core self-report statements, operationalized within a broader dual-motive inventory that includes paired Concealment items.
• Administration Time: Approximately 2 to 4 minutes for the complete battery.
• Response Scale: 7-point Likert-type response continuum:
• 1 = Strongly Disagree
• 2 = Disagree
• 3 = Somewhat Disagree
• 4 = Neither Agree nor Disagree (Neutral)
• 5 = Somewhat Agree
• 6 = Agree
• 7 = Strongly Agree
• Scoring Protocol:
• Individual item scores are summed or averaged to create an overall Creation Motivation Composite Score.
• All items are framed positively in the direction of the construct; no reverse-scoring is necessary for the Creation subscale.
• Higher scores (ranging from 5.0 to 7.0) indicate a dominant, approach-oriented artistic and self-expressive motivation for beauty work.
• Lower scores (ranging from 1.0 to 3.0) indicate low creative engagement with cosmetics, suggesting either complete disinterest in cosmetics or cosmetic usage driven exclusively by pragmatic concealment.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Makeup Usage Motivation (Creation) Scale was formally published in 2021 in the Journal of Consumer Research (Volume 48, Issue 1, pages 102–122).

• Copyright Ownership: The overarching article and associated psychometric materials are copyrighted by the Journal of Consumer Research, Inc., published by Oxford University Press.
• Academic and Non-Commercial Research Access: The scale may be utilized by independent academic researchers, university faculty, doctoral candidates, and clinicians for non-commercial scientific research, educational investigations, and academic scholarship without direct licensing fees, provided that standard academic citation and attribution are formally accorded to Smith, vanDellen, and Ton (2021).
• Commercial and Corporate Use: Any commercial implementation—including market research firms, cosmetic brand product development, proprietary psychographic profiling, or corporate consumer segmentation—requires formal copyright permission and licensing clearance via the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC) or Oxford University Press Rights and Permissions department.
• Author Contact: Correspondence regarding the scale, specialized administration protocols, or collaborative validation studies may be addressed to Dr. Rosanna K. Smith at the Department of Marketing, Terry College of Business, University of Georgia.

References

• Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(2), 139–168. https://doi.org/10.1086/209154
• Cash, T. F., Dawson, K., Davis, P., Bowen, M., & Galumbeck, C. (1989). Effects of cosmetics use on the physical attractiveness and body image of American college women. The Journal of Social Psychology, 129(3), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1989.9712051
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
• Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
• Hart, E. A., Leary, M. R., & Rejeski, W. J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.11.1.94
• Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280–1300. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280
• Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 283–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38006-9
• Korichi, R., Pelle-de-Queral, D., Gazano, G., & Aubert, A. (2008). Why women use makeup: Implication of psychological traits in makeup functions. Journal of Cosmetic Science, 59(2), 127–137. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18408870/
• Newman, G. E., Bloom, P., & Knobe, J. (2014). Value judgments and the true self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213508791
• Smith, R. K., vanDellen, M. R., & Ton, L. A. N. (2021). Makeup who you are: Self-expression enhances the perceived authenticity and public promotion of beauty work. Journal of Consumer Research, 48(1), 102–122. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaa057
• Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Baliousis, M., & Joseph, S. (2008). The authentic personality: A theoretical and empirical conceptualization and the development of the Authenticity Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(3), 385–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.3.385

Items of the Scale