Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale (CSE-T)

Abstract

The Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale (CSE-T) is an empirical psychometric instrument designed to evaluate an individual’s subjective confidence in their ability to manage the distinct psychological, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal demands precipitated by traumatic events. Developed through extensive empirical research led by Charles C. Benight and colleagues at the Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience, the CSE-T bridges a critical gap in trauma psychometrics by moving beyond generalized self-efficacy to assess context-specific self-regulatory beliefs. Available in a comprehensive 20-item version and a psychometrically robust 9-item brief form, the instrument employs an 8-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 0 (“Not Capable”) to 7 (“Totally Capable”). The scale measures critical domains of trauma adaptation, including the regulation of negative affect, intrusive cognition management, emotional containment, somatic stability, and social support mobilization. Psychometric investigations across diverse trauma-exposed cohorts—such as survivors of natural disasters, domestic violence, motor vehicle accidents, physical assaults, and military operations—demonstrate exceptional internal consistency (Cronbach’s $\alpha$ frequently exceeding .90), strong test-retest reliability, and robust structural validity confirmed through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Furthermore, the CSE-T exhibits rigorous construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity; lower trauma coping self-efficacy scores prospectively predict elevated posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, secondary depression, prolonged grief, and physiological dysregulation. This article provides an exhaustive examination of the CSE-T’s historical development, theoretical foundations, psychometric architecture, structural configurations, clinical applications, and complete administrative guidelines.

Keywords

Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy, CSE-T, posttraumatic stress disorder, psychological resilience, social cognitive theory, trauma recovery, psychometrics, cognitive appraisals, emotional regulation, coping mechanisms, intrusive thoughts, posttraumatic adaptation

Authors

The Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale was developed and refined across several programmatic studies by a collaborative network of clinical trauma psychologists and psychometricians:

• Charles C. Benight, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology and Director of the Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs (UCCS), Colorado, United States. Dr. Benight is a leading authority on trauma psychology, human resilience, and the application of social cognitive theory to acute and chronic stressors.
• Kotaro Shoji, Ph.D. — Research Associate and Psychometrician at the Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, specializing in advanced latent variable modeling, structural equation modeling, and longitudinal trajectories of traumatic stress adaptation.
• Leah E. James, Ph.D. — Research Assistant Professor and Clinical Psychologist, known for cross-cultural trauma interventions, disaster mental health research, and community-based psychosocial recovery initiatives.
• Emily E. Waldrep, M.A. — Clinical Research Specialist focusing on trauma psychometrics, cognitive appraisals, and survivors of acute community and domestic violence.
• Douglas L. Delahanty, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychological Sciences at Kent State University, Ohio, United States, recognized for research on psychoneuroendocrinology, acute biological markers of trauma, and the neurobiology of PTSD risk.
• Roman Cieslak, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology and Rector at SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland, and Senior Research Consultant at the Lyda Hill Institute, recognized for his extensive work on secondary traumatic stress, digital psychological interventions, and coping self-efficacy modeling.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale (CSE-T) is to capture an individual’s cognitive self-appraisal regarding their personal capability to cope with the complex aftermath of exposure to traumatic events. Traumatic stressors—including interpersonal violence, combat, natural disasters, vehicular collisions, and life-threatening medical emergencies—frequently shatter an individual’s fundamental assumptions regarding safety, predictability, and personal agency. Traditional post-trauma assessment paradigms have heavily prioritized psychiatric symptomatology, such as the intrusion, avoidance, cognitive/mood alterations, and hyperarousal clusters defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). While symptom inventories are crucial for diagnosis, they frequently fail to capture the operational psychological mechanisms that dictate whether an individual will chronically decline, remain functionally impaired, or successfully adapt over time.

The theoretical rationale underpinning the CSE-T posits that perceived self-efficacy—the subjective belief that one possesses the resources and competencies required to manage specific taxing demands—serves as the primary behavioral and emotional engine of posttraumatic recovery. Individuals who harbor robust trauma-related coping self-efficacy are far more inclined to actively deploy adaptive problem-focused strategies, seek out interpersonal support, engage in emotional processing rather than maladaptive avoidance, and confront trauma-related triggers. Conversely, individuals who evaluate their internal coping capabilities as thoroughly inadequate frequently succumb to demoralization, catastrophic appraisals, thought suppression, behavioral withdrawal, and heightened autonomic reactivity, significantly increasing vulnerability to chronic PTSD and comorbid clinical depression.

From an applied clinical perspective, the CSE-T serves several vital functions across acute, secondary, and tertiary intervention settings:

• Triaging and Risk Stratification: In the immediate wake of large-scale disasters, mass violence, or acute trauma presentations in emergency departments, the CSE-T functions as an efficient screening mechanism to identify survivors at heightened risk for chronic psychiatric morbidity. Low initial CSE-T scores demarcate individuals whose self-regulatory appraisals are severely compromised, signaling the necessity of immediate, targeted psychological first aid or trauma-focused cognitive interventions.
• Mechanistic Treatment Planning: The instrument pinpoints specific domains of perceived deficit. For example, a patient demonstrating high confidence in logistical management (e.g., getting their life back to normal) but near-zero confidence in emotional stabilization (e.g., controlling distressing images or managing intense emotional outbursts) requires a therapeutic trajectory oriented toward affect regulation, distress tolerance, and cognitive reframing prior to prolonged exposure interventions.
• Monitoring Psychotherapeutic Progress: Coping self-efficacy has been repeatedly demonstrated to function as a core mechanism of therapeutic change. In evidence-based modalities such as Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), Prolonged Exposure (PE), and Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), shifts in CSE-T scores typically precede downstream reductions in formal PTSD symptom severity. Tracking CSE-T scores longitudinally offers clinicians an objective, prospective indicator of whether the therapeutic alliance and technical interventions are successfully restoring the patient’s perceived agency.

Psychological Construct

The CSE-T operationalizes Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy, a highly context-specific manifestation of perceived self-efficacy explicitly rooted in Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Rather than measuring a generalized, trait-like sense of competence (as captured by instruments such as the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale), the CSE-T assesses an individual’s confidence in executing concrete cognitive, affective, and behavioral self-regulatory actions in direct response to trauma-induced disruptions.

Trauma coping self-efficacy is conceptually distinct from other related psychological constructs such as self-esteem, locus of control, outcome expectancies, and basic optimism. While self-esteem reflects an affective evaluation of personal self-worth (“I am a valuable human being”), coping self-efficacy represents an agentic, performance-oriented judgment of personal execution capability (“I have the internal capacity to handle these intrusive memories without losing emotional control”). Similarly, where an internal locus of control denotes a generalized belief that events are governed by one’s own actions rather than external fate, trauma coping self-efficacy specifically evaluates whether one believes they have the requisite skills to adaptively steer those actions amid severe internal turmoil. Crucially, self-efficacy must also be differentiated from outcome expectancies: an individual may fully believe that maintaining a balanced routine will aid recovery (positive outcome expectancy), yet concurrently believe that they themselves are completely incapable of adhering to that routine due to profound emotional exhaustion (low coping self-efficacy).

The construct encompasses several interrelated behavioral and intrapsychic domains:

1. Affective and Somatic Regulation

Trauma survivors routinely encounter intense waves of secondary emotional dysregulation, including sudden panic, anger, profound sadness, terror, and guilt. The affective self-regulatory dimension of the CSE-T measures an individual’s perceived capability to experience these powerful affective surges without becoming destabilized, emotionally disintegrated, or outwardly aggressive. Items tapping this dimension (such as item 1: “Deal with my emotions since I experienced my trauma”, item 9: “Not ‘lose it’ emotionally”, and item 18: “Not lose my temper at others”) evaluate the respondent’s confidence that they can contain, modulate, and safely process affective turmoil rather than resorting to dissociative numbing or volatile behavioral outbursts.

2. Cognitive and Intrusive Memory Management

A hallmark of posttraumatic pathology is the failure of natural inhibitory control over traumatic memory networks, leading to intrusive flashbacks, nightmare reenactments, and catastrophic prospective ruminations. The cognitive management facet evaluates the respondent’s subjective sense of control over these unwanted mental phenomena. Items such as item 7 (“Control distressing thoughts about the traumatic experience”), item 8 (“Control distressing images of the event/experience that come into my mind”), and item 11 (“Manage distressing dreams or images about the traumatic experience”) capture perceived cognitive agency. Within this construct, “control” does not refer to maladaptive cognitive avoidance or rigid thought suppression—which typically generates paradoxical rebound effects—but rather the confidence that one can encounter these distressing cognitions without experiencing total cognitive disruption or panic-driven thought spirals.

3. Self-Evaluative and Self-Compassionate Processing

Traumatic exposure frequently initiates harsh self-blame, retrospective revisionism, and internalized criticism (e.g., believing one should have anticipated or prevented the event, or judging oneself harshly for struggling in the aftermath). This facet of the construct gauges the degree to which an individual feels capable of shielding themselves from corrosive, internalized self-deprecation. Items such as item 12 (“Not be critical of myself about what happened”) and item 20 (“Not be critical of myself about how I’m handling this”) assess the agentic deployment of self-compassion, acceptance, and realistic appraisal under conditions of extreme psychological distress.

4. Functional Readjustment and Meaning Making

Recovering from a catastrophic disruption requires the operational capability to rebuild fragmented daily routines and re-anchor oneself in purposeful existence. This domain assesses the individual’s perceived confidence in restoring lifestyle stability (item 3: “Get my life back to normal”), accepting the reality of the traumatic event without denial (item 5: “Accept what happened”), and actively discovering or reconstructing personal meaning in the wake of existential devastation (item 6: “Find some meaning in what happened”).

5. Prosocial Engagement and Social Resource Mobilization

Trauma routinely drives survivors into profound interpersonal alienation, social withdrawal, and defensive hyper-independence. The interpersonal dimension of coping self-efficacy evaluates an individual’s confidence in overcoming these barriers to actively solicit social assistance (item 17: “Get help from others about what happened”), articulate their experience through dialogue (item 4: “Have conversations about the traumatic experience”), and maintain outward reciprocal altruism and support for others (item 14: “Be supportive to other people since the traumatic experience”).

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual architecture of the CSE-T is grounded primarily in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, integrated with Stevan Hobfoll’s Conservation of Resources (COR) theory and transactional models of cognitive stress appraisal.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

According to Bandura (1997), human functioning is governed by a system of triadic reciprocal determinism, wherein internal cognitive/biological events, external behavioral patterns, and environmental influences continuously exert reciprocal influence upon one another. Central to this theoretical architecture is perceived self-efficacy—the core belief in one’s agentic power to produce desired effects through one’s own actions. In the context of traumatic exposure, Bandura theorized that exposure to severe, life-threatening stressors inevitably produces an initial surge of autonomic hyperarousal and existential disorientation. However, the trajectory of subsequent recovery is heavily mediated by the survivor’s self-evaluative cognitive appraisal of their own coping capability.

Bandura posited that self-efficacy beliefs are cultivated through four foundational informational channels:

1. Enactive Mastery Experiences: Successful micro-experiences of managing distress or re-engaging with daily tasks post-trauma reinforce the belief that recovery is attainable.
2. Vicarious Experiences: Observing comparable survivors successfully navigate trauma recovery provides social models that foster beliefs of personal capability.
3. Verbal and Social Persuasion: Encouragement from trusted peers, clinicians, or family members helps counter demoralization and strengthens self-regulatory resolve.
4. Somatic and Emotional States: Survivors routinely interpret their own physiological arousal (e.g., racing pulse, panic, diaphoresis) as proof of personal incompetence or impending breakdown. Those with high coping self-efficacy interpret somatic arousal merely as normative stress mobilization, thereby neutralizing catastrophic fear cascades.

Integration with Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory

Benight and colleagues synthesized Bandura’s self-efficacy paradigm with Hobfoll’s Conservation of Resources (COR) theory. COR theory dictates that psychological distress ensues when an individual’s vital resources—categorized as objects, conditions, personal characteristics, and energies—are threatened, depleted, or fail to yield expected returns following substantial investment. A catastrophic trauma event typically sparks an immediate, massive loss spiral of both physical and psychosocial resources.

Within this synthesized model, trauma coping self-efficacy serves as a primary resource caravan passageway or meta-resource. An individual possessing elevated CSE-T scores approaches resource depletion not as a final, catastrophic defeat, but as a challenge requiring systematic resource reinvestment and conservation. Coping self-efficacy mobilizes personal agency, prompting the individual to utilize remaining personal strengths (energy, focus, cognitive reframing) to secure external support (community aid, clinical resources, interpersonal solace), thereby terminating catastrophic loss spirals and instigating resource gain caravans that accelerate psychological recovery.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale has been rigorously evaluated across a broad spectrum of clinical and community populations exposed to acute and chronic trauma, yielding strong empirical evidence across multiple validity domains.

Construct and Structural Validity

Construct validity has been established across diverse trauma populations, including survivors of catastrophic floods, hurricanes, terrorist attacks, military combat, intimate partner violence, and major motor vehicle collisions. In the seminal psychometric validation study conducted by Benight et al. (2015), the structural validity of the CSE-T was subjected to exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The analysis demonstrated that while the 20 items effectively measure differentiated operational domains of coping, they load robustly onto a dominant overarching higher-order trauma coping self-efficacy construct, providing psychometric justification for the calculation of an overall composite score. The standardized factor loadings across items consistently range between .55 and .85, demonstrating that the individual items reliably represent the underlying latent continuum.

Convergent Validity

Convergent validity has been repeatedly corroborated through strong, theoretically coherent correlations with established clinical and psychological inventories:

• Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms: Significant, robust negative correlations have been documented between CSE-T scores and standardized measures of PTSD symptom severity, including the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and the Impact of Event Scale–Revised (IES-R). Correlation coefficients typically range between $r = -.45$ and $r = -.68$ ($p < .001$), demonstrating that diminished coping self-efficacy is consistently coupled with elevated intrusions, active behavioral avoidance, negative emotional alterations, and physiological hyperarousal.
• Depressive Symptomatology: CSE-T scores consistently show moderate-to-strong inverse associations with depression inventories, such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), with coefficients generally falling between $r = -.40$ and $r = -.60$.
• General and Specific Self-Efficacy: The CSE-T correlates moderately with generalized measures such as the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES; $r \approx .40$ to $.55$), confirming that while the instruments share a conceptual parentage, the context-specific CSE-T captures unique trauma-related variance that generic scales fail to detect.
• Resilience and Active Coping: Positive correlations are documented between the CSE-T and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC; $r \approx .50$ to $.65$) as well as active problem-focused coping subscales on the Brief COPE inventory.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity has been demonstrated by showing that the CSE-T measures a construct distinct from mere absence of psychological distress, trait neuroticism, or baseline social desirability. In multivariable structural models, when controlling for trait neuroticism and baseline negative affectivity, the CSE-T continues to account for significant incremental variance in functional posttraumatic outcomes. Additionally, correlations between the CSE-T and measures of socially desirable responding (such as the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale) are negligible to low ($r < .15$), confirming that elevated self-efficacy ratings reflect authentic cognitive appraisals rather than an effort to project an image of stoicism or invulnerability.

Predictive and Longitudinal Validity

The most compelling psychometric asset of the CSE-T is its prospective predictive power. Longitudinal investigations across various traumatic stressors indicate that baseline coping self-efficacy, assessed shortly after traumatic exposure, reliably predicts functional recovery and psychiatric outcomes months and even years later:

• In prospective studies of motor vehicle accident survivors, early trauma coping self-efficacy appraisals predicted unique variance in 12-month posttraumatic distress and functional disability, even after controlling for baseline injury severity, initial acute distress, and litigation status (Benight et al., 2008).
• In disaster settings, including longitudinal cohorts evaluated following Hurricane Katrina and major natural catastrophes, low coping self-efficacy measured acutely post-disaster prospectively predicted secondary depression, chronic PTSD symptom cascades, and prolonged functional impairment over a multi-year follow-up period.
• Physiological research (Delahanty et al.) indicates that low baseline CSE-T scores predict sustained neuroendocrine and cardiovascular dysregulation, characterized by blunted cortisol recovery curves and prolonged autonomic sympathetic overdrive following trauma recall tasks.

Reliability

The Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale demonstrates robust internal consistency and stability across independent clinical trials, academic investigations, and cross-cultural psychometric adaptations.

Internal Consistency

Across validation samples, the full 20-item CSE-T demonstrates high internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients routinely falling between $\alpha = .91$ and $\alpha = .95$. Item-total correlations across the entire 20-item set are strong, typically ranging from .48 to .78, indicating that each item contributes meaningfully to the primary latent construct without introducing psychometric redundancy. Evaluated using modern composite reliability standards, McDonald’s omega coefficients ($\omega$) consistently mirror or exceed the alpha metrics ($\omega > .92$), further confirming structural internal coherence across diverse clinical cohorts.

The brief 9-item version of the CSE-T retains high psychometric precision despite its reduced length. Empirical testing of the 9-item short form demonstrates internal consistency values typically ranging from $\alpha = .88$ to $\alpha = .92$. The Spearman-Brown stepped reliability correction indicates that the reduction from 20 items to 9 items incurs minimal loss of measurement reliability, rendering the 9-item form exceptionally well-suited for high-stress, time-constrained epidemiological studies, ecological momentary assessments (EMA), and emergency clinical triage.

Test-Retest Reliability

The stability of the CSE-T has been evaluated across varying temporal intervals among non-intervened populations. Over a 2- to 4-week interval, test-retest reliability coefficients range between $r = .78$ and $r = .86$, confirming substantial temporal stability in the absence of targeted psychological intervention. Over longer spans (e.g., 6 to 12 weeks), test-retest correlations among stable control groups remain robust ($r \approx .72$ to $.80$). When clinical interventions such as CPT or PE are administered, however, CSE-T scores exhibit significant upward shifts, verifying that while the scale is temporally stable in unperturbed states, it remains dynamically responsive to therapeutic changes in cognitive appraisal.

Factor Analysis

The underlying factor structure of the CSE-T has been extensively investigated using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) across diverse, large-scale trauma cohorts.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

During initial scale development across domestic violence survivors, disaster survivors, and motor vehicle crash victims, principal axis factoring with promax and oblimin oblique rotations revealed a dominant first factor accounting for the primary share of total variance (frequently between 45% and 55% of the total variance). While initial exploratory extractions occasionally indicated three or four sub-dimensions corresponding to specific behavioral strategies—such as Emotional Regulation, Cognitive Processing, and Functional/Interpersonal Coping—these sub-factors exhibited extremely high inter-factor correlations (typically $r > .60$ to $.75$). This high degree of collinearity among latent sub-dimensions strongly pointed toward a singular, overarching higher-order latent construct of trauma coping self-efficacy.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Subsequent psychometric investigations by Benight et al. (2015) evaluated competitive structural models using rigorous structural equation modeling frameworks. Specifically, researchers contrasted:

1. A single-factor unidimensional model.
2. An uncorrelated multi-factor model.
3. A correlated multi-factor model (dividing items into emotional coping, cognitive coping, and functional adaptation).
4. A higher-order hierarchical model, wherein a single second-order “Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy” latent factor subsumed the lower-order specific coping dimensions.
5. A bifactor model comprising one general trauma self-efficacy factor alongside orthogonal specific facet factors.

The confirmatory models were evaluated using standard goodness-of-fit indices: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The hierarchical model and the bifactor model both demonstrated superior fit to the data, with the bifactor model revealing that the general factor accounted for the overwhelming majority of common variance (Explained Common Variance; ECV $> .70$). Fit metrics consistently met or exceeded recommended academic thresholds:

• $\chi^2/\text{df} le 2.5$
• $\text{CFI} ge .94$ to $.97$
• $\text{TLI} ge .93$ to $.96$
• $\text{RMSEA} le .048$ to $.062$ (with 90% confidence intervals thoroughly within acceptable ranges)
• $\text{SRMR} le .040$ to $.052$

Factor loadings for the full 20-item scale on the general latent factor were universally significant ($p < .001$), with standardized coefficients ranging from .52 (item 14: “Be supportive to other people since the traumatic experience”) to .84 (item 1: “Deal with my emotions since I experienced my trauma”, and item 16: “Cope with thoughts that I can’t handle things anymore”).

In developing the abbreviated 9-item short version, researchers selected the highest-loading, conceptually distinct items from across the latent domains. Confirmatory factor analysis of the 9-item short form demonstrated excellent model fit metrics ($\text{CFI} > .97$, $\text{TLI} > .96$, $\text{RMSEA} < .050$), fully validating the unidimensional operationalization of the brief scale for rapid research and clinical assessments.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale is an assessment tool designed for self-report administration, although it can also be administered via structured interview in clinical or cross-cultural field settings. The structural and administrative parameters of the instrument are detailed below:

• Instrument Designation: Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale (CSE-T)
• Primary Target Population: Adults (aged 18 and older) and adolescents (aged 14–17 with reading level validation) exposed to traumatic stressors as defined by DSM-5 Criterion A (e.g., combat, sexual assault, physical violence, serious accidents, catastrophic natural or human-caused disasters, life-threatening illness).
• Administration Format: Standard paper-and-pencil questionnaire, web-based digital assessment, or clinician-facilitated interview.
• Item Count:
  • Full Version: 20 self-report items covering affective regulation, intrusive cognitive management, meaning-making, self-compassion, and interpersonal functionality.
  • Brief Version: 9 designated items (specifically items 1, 3, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 17), curated to preserve maximal psychometric variance and structural integrity while minimizing respondent burden.
• Response Format: An 8-point Likert-type continuum ranging from 0 (“Not Capable”) to 7 (“Totally Capable”). Respondents are instructed to rate their subjective capability for each statement as it applies to their life since the traumatic event.
• Scoring Procedures:
  • Full Scale Score: Calculated by summing the response values across all 20 items. The total raw score ranges from 0 to 140. Alternatively, a mean item score can be generated by dividing the total raw sum by 20 (yielding a metric ranging from 0.00 to 7.00).
  • Brief 9-Item Score: Calculated by summing the response values across the 9 marked items. The brief raw score ranges from 0 to 63, with a corresponding mean item score ranging from 0.00 to 7.00.
  • Reverse Scoring: There are no reverse-scored items on the CSE-T. Items phrased with negative linguistic qualifiers (such as item 9: “Not ‘lose it’ emotionally”, item 12: “Not be critical of myself…”, and item 18: “Not lose my temper…”) are scored in the direct direction: higher numbers indicate higher perceived capability to avoid those negative behaviors.
• Interpretation Guidelines:
  • Higher Scores: Higher numerical scores directly reflect greater perceived trauma coping self-efficacy—indicating that the individual possesses robust confidence in their capacity to manage emotional dysregulation, confront trauma reminders, contain catastrophic cognitions, and mobilize recovery resources.
  • Lower Scores: Lower numerical scores indicate profound perceived self-regulatory inadequacy, signaling heightened vulnerability to posttraumatic psychopathology, demoralization, behavioral avoidance, and chronic emotional distress. Mean item scores falling below 3.50 (or raw 20-item scores below 70; raw 9-item scores below 31) are frequently utilized in clinical triage as indicative of clinically meaningful self-efficacy impairment requiring therapeutic support.
• Completion Time: Approximately 4 to 6 minutes for the full 20-item version; approximately 1 to 2 minutes for the brief 9-item version.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy scale (CSE-T) was formally published in its standardized context-specific form in 2015 by Charles C. Benight, Kotaro Shoji, Leah E. James, Emily E. Waldrep, Douglas L. Delahanty, and Roman Cieslak in the APA journal Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. This standardized measure built directly upon earlier domain-specific iterations developed by Dr. Benight and colleagues, including the Domestic Violence Coping Self-Efficacy measure (DV-CSE; Benight et al., 2004) and the Motor Vehicle Accident Coping Self-Efficacy measure (MVA-CSE; Benight et al., 2008).

Permissions and Licensing: The instrument was supported in part by federal research funding through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and is maintained by the Lyda Hill Institute for Human Resilience at the University of Colorado Colorado Springs. As an instrument deposited within the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and PubMed Central public domain repository (PMC4664052), the CSE-T is made accessible for academic, clinical, and non-commercial scientific research purposes free of charge. Researchers and licensed clinicians are permitted to utilize, administer, and reproduce the instrument provided that appropriate academic attribution and citations are formally accorded to the authors and original psychometric publications. Commercial distribution, proprietary repackaging, or incorporation into fee-based digital health software platforms typically requires written authorization and formal licensing agreements through Dr. Charles C. Benight and the University of Colorado Colorado Springs Technology Transfer Office.

References

• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.
• Benight, C. C. (2005). Clinical implications of coping self-efficacy in early interventions for trauma. Guidance and Counselling, 21(1), 6–12.
• Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(10), 1129–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.008
• Benight, C. C., Cieslak, R., Molton, I. R., & Johnson, L. E. (2008). Self-evaluative appraisals of coping capability and posttraumatic distress following motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(4), 677–685. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.4.677
• Benight, C. C., Harding-Taylor, A. S., Midboe, A. M., & Durham, R. L. (2004). Development and psychometric validation of a domestic violence coping self-efficacy measure (DV-CSE). Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17(6), 505–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10960-004-5799-8
• Benight, C. C., Shoji, K., James, L. E., Waldrep, E. E., Delahanty, D. L., & Cieslak, R. (2015). Trauma coping self-efficacy: A context-specific self-efficacy measure for traumatic stress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(6), 591–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000047
• Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
• Shoji, K., Cieslak, R., Smoktunowicz, E., Rogala, A., Schulz, U., Luszczynska, A., & Benight, C. C. (2014). Associations between job burnout and self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 29(4), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2015.1058369

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)