Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS) | PsychScales

{f”title”: “Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale”,n “content”: “

1. Abstract

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The Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS) is a multidimensional psychometric instrument developed by Yeongbae Kim, Manuel Alector Ribeiro, and Gang Li (2022) to evaluate the phenomenological properties of autobiographical memories formed during travel experiences. Rooted in cognitive psychology and memory science—specifically Martin A. Conway’s Self-Memory System (SMS) and established phenomenological frameworks such as the Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire (AMQ) and the Memory Characteristics Questionnaire (MCQ)—the TMCS operationalizes tourism experiences as enduring cognitive structures rather than transient on-site sensations. The scale comprises 26 self-report items distributed across seven distinct first-order dimensions: Accessibility (5 items, reverse-scored), Trip Details (3 items), Emotional Intensity (4 items), Sharing (4 items), Valence (3 items), Sensory Details (4 items), and Vividness (3 items). Responses are documented using a standardized 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (\”Strongly Disagree\”) to 7 (\”Strongly Agree\”).

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Initial scale construction and purification proceeded across two independent investigations using adult tourist samples recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA; N = 355) refined an initial pool of 51 candidate items down to 33 items, demonstrating a robust seven-factor configuration. Subsequent confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; N = 351) further reduced the instrument to 26 items, revealing exemplary goodness-of-fit indices ($\chi^2/df = 1.94$, $\\text{CFI} = .96$, $\\text{TLI} = .95$, $\\text{RMSEA} = .052$, $\\text{SRMR} = .044$). Across validation cohorts, the TMCS has demonstrated exceptional internal consistency, with composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s alpha ($\\alpha$) values systematically exceeding the .80 benchmark across all seven subscales. Criterion, convergent, and discriminant validity were corroborated through meaningful associations with post-trip destination loyalty, behavioral intention, word-of-mouth recommendations, and subjective well-being. Consequently, the TMCS provides tourism scholars, cognitive psychologists, and destination marketers with an empirically validated, theoretically sophisticated measurement tool for capturing the lasting experiential footprints of leisure travel.

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2. Keywords

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Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale, TMCS, autobiographical memory, Self-Memory System, phenomenological characteristics, episodic memory, tourism marketing, scale development, cognitive psychometrics, destination loyalty, recollective experience.

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3. Authors

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The Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale was conceptualized, operationalized, and psychometrically validated by a collaborative team of international researchers in tourism management and consumer behavior:

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• Yeongbae Kim, Ph.D. — School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom. Dr. Kim’s research trajectory centers on tourist psychology, autobiographical recollection, emotion dynamics in consumer travel, and advanced quantitative methodologies.

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• Manuel Alector Ribeiro, Ph.D. — Senior Lecturer in Tourism Management, School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom; and Research Fellow, School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Ribeiro specializes in sustainable destination management, organizational behavior, tourist behavior modeling, and structural equation modeling.

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• Gang Li, Ph.D. — Professor of Tourism Economics, School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom. Professor Li is an internationally recognized expert in tourism demand analysis, econometric modeling, consumer forecasting, and quantitative measurement in social sciences.

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Correspondence regarding the original development and psychometric properties of the scale can be directed to the lead authors through the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, United Kingdom.

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4. Purpose

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The primary purpose of the Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS) is to provide an empirically robust, theoretically sound measurement tool capable of evaluating how travelers encode, consolidate, retrieve, and mentally represent their past travel experiences. While traditional tourism studies frequently evaluated vacation experiences through immediate, on-site satisfaction metrics, perceived service quality, or broad overall affective states, cognitive psychology posits that the long-term influence of an experience is governed not by the objective reality of the event itself, but by its reconstructive autobiographical memory representation. In experiential consumption such as leisure travel, months or years may elapse between the actual trip and subsequent behavioral decisions (e.g., revisiting a destination, generating positive word-of-mouth, or counseling peers). Thus, post-trip memory characteristics constitute the primary psychological mechanism determining ongoing customer-destination relationships.

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Prior to the construction of the TMCS, researchers examining tourist memory relied either on general memory inventories designed for generic autobiographical life events—such as the Memory Characteristics Questionnaire (Johnson et al., 1988) or the Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire (Rubin et al., 2003)—or on narrow, ad hoc unidimensional scales focusing strictly on vividness or cognitive recall. These generic tools were not adapted to the hedonic, sensory-rich, identity-defining, and episodic complexities inherent to leisure travel. The TMCS was developed to bridge this empirical and theoretical gap by synthesizing the unique nuances of travel memory into seven standardized, quantifiable dimensions.

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From a research perspective, the TMCS enables investigators to explore the psychological trajectories of experiential travel. Researchers can examine how specific travel interventions (such as transformative tourism, cultural immersion, or high-arousal adventure recreation) shape episodic longevity, phenomenological richness, and memory longevity over extended temporal horizons. It allows investigators to ascertain which memory dimensions (e.g., emotional intensity versus sensory detail) exert the strongest mediation effects between on-site environmental stimuli and subsequent customer lifetime value or destination brand advocacy.

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From an applied industry and clinical/well-being perspective, the TMCS serves as a strategic diagnostic instrument for destination management organizations (DMOs), tour operators, and wellness retreat facilitators. Destination managers can systematically identify which experiential components produce memorable tourism experiences (MTEs) that remain easily accessible, vividly pictorial, and frequently shared in social circles. Furthermore, because travel memories frequently function as self-regulatory resources that bolster psychological resilience and life satisfaction, mental health practitioners and leisure scientists can deploy the TMCS to measure the therapeutic efficacy of respite vacations, ecotherapy, and restorative leisure interventions.

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5. Psychological Construct

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The psychological construct measured by the TMCS is the phenomenological profile of tourism autobiographical memory. In cognitive psychology, phenomenological memory characteristics refer to the subjective qualitative qualities that accompany the conscious retrieval of a personal past episode, including the vividness of visual imagery, the intensity of re-experienced emotion, the availability of context-specific information, and the perceived cognitive effort required for retrieval. Rather than measuring objective memory accuracy (e.g., veridical correctness of historical dates or street names), the TMCS captures the metacognitive, qualitative properties of the recollective experience. The construct is conceptualized as a multidimensional architecture composed of seven distinct yet interrelated subdimensions:

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1. Accessibility (5 Items, Reverse-Scored)

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Accessibility assesses the subjective ease, fluency, and cognitive latency with which a tourist can mentally retrieve their travel experience from long-term memory stores. Highly accessible memories are recalled effortlessly, requiring minimal cognitive search time, and spontaneously resurface in consciousness without demanding intentional, deliberate retrieval effort. In the TMCS, this subscale is operationalized through reverse-scored indicators reflecting cognitive retrieval barriers, retrieval difficulty, memory decay, and forgetfulness. High final scores (following reverse transformation) signify that the memory remains immediately retrievable and chronically salient within the individual’s cognitive landscape.

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2. Trip Details (3 Items)

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Trip Details assesses the episodic specificity and contextual clarity of the memory representation regarding the physical spaces, sequence of locations, and spatial landmarks traversed during the travel encounter. In cognitive theory, this corresponds to the spatiotemporal scaffolding of episodic memory. Tourists with elevated Trip Details scores report clear, unambiguous mental maps of where events occurred, the distinct identities of sites visited, and the specific geographic configurations of their travel journey.

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3. Emotional Intensity (4 Items)

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Emotional Intensity captures the magnitude and physiological arousal of the affective state re-experienced during the conscious retrieval of the travel memory. Grounded in the concept of affective recollective reliving, this dimension measures the extent to which recalling the travel experience re-evokes visceral emotional responses—such as excitement, exhilaration, wonder, or passion—mirroring the emotional state experienced during the original event.

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4. Sharing (4 Items)

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Sharing reflects the behavioral and communicative manifestation of autobiographical memory: the frequency, willingness, and deliberate communicative effort dedicated to recounting the travel narrative to interpersonal contacts, peers, family members, or broader audiences (including social media platforms). In autobiographical memory research, social rehearsal acts as a critical consolidatory mechanism that reinforces memory permanence, reshapes personal identity, and fosters social bonding.

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5. Valence (3 Items)

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Valence refers to the hedonic tone and overall positivity versus negativity of the remembered travel experience. Given that leisure tourism is predominantly an elective, hedonic endeavor aimed at pleasure, restoration, and self-actualization, valence reflects whether the cognitive representation is preserved as a fundamentally happy, uplifting, and fulfilling chapter of the individual’s personal narrative.

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6. Sensory Details (4 Items)

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Sensory Details evaluates the multisensory richness of the memory representation, specifically capturing the re-experiencing of non-visual perceptual inputs such as auditory cues (sounds, music, voices), olfactory signatures (scents, ambient aromas), tactile sensations (temperature, textures), and visceral bodily states. While visual imagery is ubiquitous in recall, multisensory revival reflects profound perceptual encoding during on-site immersion.

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7. Vividness (3 Items)

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Vividness measures the visual clarity, pictorial resolution, and subjective realism of the mental images evoked during autobiographical recollection. Visual imagery represents a core cognitive pillar of episodic memory retrieval; high vividness denotes that the individual visualizes the past vacation with photographic, lucid clarity, experiencing the mental imagery as if looking through a sharp lens rather than observing a faded, hazy mental sketch.

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6. Theoretical Framework

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The Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale is anchored primarily in Martin A. Conway’s Self-Memory System (SMS) model (Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000; Conway, 2005) and is directly informed by foundational paradigms in cognitive psychology concerning autobiographical memory structure (Rubin et al., 2003; Sutin & Robins, 2007; Boyacioglu & Akfirat, 2015).

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The Self-Memory System (SMS) Architecture

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The SMS model conceptualizes autobiographical memory not as a static repository of recorded video clips, but as a dynamic, reconstructive mental system comprising two fundamental pillars: the Autobiographical Knowledge Base and the Working Self.

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• The Autobiographical Knowledge Base: This structure is hierarchically arranged into three conceptual levels: lifetime periods (broad chronological eras defined by distinct themes, such as \”my college years\”), general events (repeated or extended events spanning days or weeks, such as \”my two-week vacation to Italy\”), and event-specific knowledge (ESK; highly detailed sensory-perceptual records of fleeting moments, measured in seconds or minutes). The TMCS directly captures the transition and synthesis of ESK (sensory details, emotional intensity, vividness) into stable, enduring general event representations (trip details, accessibility).

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• The Working Self: Conway defines the working self as an active hierarchy of active personal goals, self-images, and identity schemas. The working self regulates memory encoding and retrieval, prioritizing experiences that align with, validate, or advance the individual’s core self-concept. Because vacations often serve as identity-defining milestones—allowing individuals to explore alternative identities, escape routine, and affirm values—the working self continually selects and retains tourism memories that sustain positive identity, explaining the enduring valence and active interpersonal sharing captured by the scale.

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Cognitive Phenomenological Models

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The operationalization of the TMCS also synthesizes the cognitive traditions of Marcia K. Johnson’s reality monitoring framework (Johnson et al., 1988) and David C. Rubin’s Basic-Systems Model of autobiographical memory (Rubin et al., 2003). These paradigms postulate that an autobiographical recollection is reconstructed through the coordinated activation of distinct neuropsychological processing systems: visual imagery systems, auditory/olfactory systems, emotional networks (the amygdala-hippocampal complex), linguistic narrative systems, and metacognitive monitoring systems. By capturing sensory details, vividness, emotional intensity, and accessibility, the TMCS reflects the simultaneous activation of these neuropsychological subsystems during vacation recollection.

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Furthermore, the TMCS integrates the functional memory perspectives articulated by Sutin and Robins (2007) and Boyacioglu and Akfirat (2015). According to these functional perspectives, autobiographical memories serve three overarching psychological functions: self functions (maintaining personal coherence and self-esteem), directive functions (guiding future behavioral decisions and problem-solving), and social functions (developing and maintaining social bonds). Within the TMCS, the Sharing dimension explicitly captures this social function, while Accessibility, Trip Details, and Valence directly govern the directive function by steering future travel intentions and destination loyalty.

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7. Validity

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The psychometric validity of the TMCS has been thoroughly established through multi-stage quantitative analyses, adhering to the stringent scale development standards articulated by Churchill (1979) and Anderson and Gerbing (1988). The original validation study by Kim, Ribeiro, and Li (2022) examined content validity, construct validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and predictive/nomological validity.

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Content and Face Validity

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Content validity was secured through an extensive literature review across cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and tourism management, resulting in an initial 51-item pool. This pool was subjected to rigorous evaluation by an expert panel of university professors, post-doctoral scholars, and doctoral researchers specializing in tourism behavior and psychometrics. Experts evaluated items for clarity, semantic redundancy, representativeness, and theoretical fidelity, leading to the deletion or refinement of ambiguous items prior to quantitative field testing.

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Convergent Validity

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Convergent validity evaluates whether the observed items reliably measure their designated latent construct. In the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) validation phase ($N = 351$), all 26 standardized factor loadings ($\\lambda$) were statistically significant ($p < .001$) and exceeded the recognized threshold of .60, with the vast majority exceeding .75 (ranging from .68 to .92). Furthermore, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each of the seven dimensions surpassed the recommended .50 cutoff value established by Fornell and Larcker (1981):

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• Accessibility: $\\text{AVE} = .61$

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• Trip Details: $\\text{AVE} = .72$

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• Emotional Intensity: $\\text{AVE} = .71$

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• Sharing: $\\text{AVE} = .78$

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• Valence: $\\text{AVE} = .74$

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• Sensory Details: $\\text{AVE} = .68$

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• Vividness: $\\text{AVE} = .76$

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Because the AVE values uniformly exceeded .50, it is confirmed that more than half of the variance in the indicator variables is captured by the underlying latent constructs rather than measurement error.

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Discriminant Validity

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Discriminant validity was established through two rigorous methodological tests: the Fornell-Larcker criterion and the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT; Henseler et al., 2015). Under the Fornell-Larcker test, the square root of the AVE for every individual subscale was substantially higher than the inter-construct correlation coefficients between that subscale and any other dimension in the model. Under the more conservative HTMT criterion, all calculated HTMT ratios remained well below the strict threshold of .85, confirming that each of the seven dimensions captures a unique, non-redundant phenomenological facet of tourism memory.

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Nomological and Predictive Validity

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Nomological and predictive validity were substantiated by modeling the TMCS dimensions against critical downstream consumer behavior variables. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that TMCS dimensions—most notably Valence, Accessibility, Vividness, and Sharing—significantly predicted post-trip destination loyalty ($\\beta = .24$ to $.48, p < .001$), electronic word-of-mouth intentions ($\\beta = .31$ to $.52, p < .001$), and psychological well-being ($\\beta = .18$ to $.35, p < .01$). These findings empirically confirm that phenomenologically rich travel memories directly foster enduring pro-destination attitudes and personal flourishing.

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8. Reliability

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The reliability of the Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale has been demonstrated across diverse psychometric parameters, confirming internal consistency, composite reliability, and measurement stability across validation cohorts.

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Internal Consistency and Composite Reliability

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In classical test theory, internal consistency evaluates the degree to which items within a subscale yield consistent, homogeneous measurements. In the main validation study (Kim et al., 2022), both Cronbach’s alpha ($\\alpha$) and Composite Reliability (CR) were computed for each subscale:

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• Accessibility (5 items): $\\alpha = .88$, $\\text{CR} = .89$

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• Trip Details (3 items): $\\alpha = .87$, $\\text{CR} = .88$

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• Emotional Intensity (4 items): $\\alpha = .90$, $\\text{CR} = .91$

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• Sharing (4 items): $\\alpha = .93$, $\\text{CR} = .93$

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• Valence (3 items): $\\alpha = .89$, $\\text{CR} = .89$

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• Sensory Details (4 items): $\\alpha = .89$, $\\text{CR} = .90$

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• Vividness (3 items): $\\alpha = .90$, $\\text{CR} = .91$

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All Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability coefficients exceed the stringent .80 threshold recommended for psychometric assessment, with several subscales (Sharing, Emotional Intensity, Vividness) achieving or exceeding .90. These metrics confirm exceptional internal reliability and minimal measurement error.

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Item-Total Correlations and Stability

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Corrected item-total correlations across all 26 indicators exceeded .55, substantially outperforming the conventional .35 minimum standard, demonstrating that each item contributed meaningfully to its assigned construct without introducing extraneous variance. Standard errors of measurement (SEM) across all factors were small, and subsequent replications across distinct travel modalities have confirmed structural stability and measurement invariance across gender and age cohorts.

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9. Factor Analysis

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The factorial architecture of the TMCS was developed and confirmed through a rigorous two-step exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic sequence across two distinct consumer datasets.

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Exploratory Factor Analysis (Pilot Study, N = 355)

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The initial pool of 51 candidate items was administered to an exploratory sample of 355 adult travelers. Prior to factor extraction, data suitability was evaluated. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy yielded an outstanding value of .93, while Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity attained high statistical significance ($\chi^2(1275) = 11,482.35, p < .001$), confirming substantial inter-item correlation structures suitable for factor extraction.

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Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) accompanied by Promax oblique rotation (accounting for expected theoretical correlations among cognitive memory dimensions) was conducted. Factor retention criteria included eigenvalues greater than 1.0 (Kaiser-Guttman rule), Catell’s scree plot inspection, and parallel analysis. Items displaying low factor loadings (< .50), severe cross-loadings (> .30 on secondary factors), or conceptual misalignment were systematically pruned. This purification process reduced the instrument from 51 to 33 items across seven clearly identifiable, stable factors, explaining 68.4% of the total cumulative variance.

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Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Main Validation Study, N = 351)

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To confirm the seven-factor dimensionality and assess potential model misspecification, a second independent sample of 351 tourists completed the 33-item inventory. Maximum Likelihood Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted using AMOS / R lavaan.

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During the CFA specification, further scale trimming was executed based on modification indices, standardized residuals, and item parsimony considerations, successfully refining the scale to its definitive 26-item structure. The final measurement model demonstrated excellent goodness-of-fit to the empirical data:

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• Chi-Square to Degrees of Freedom Ratio: $\chi^2/df = 1.94$ (values between 1.0 and 3.0 denote excellent model fit)

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• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): $.96$ (values $\\ge .95$ indicate superior fit)

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• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): $.95$ (values $\\ge .95$ indicate superior fit)

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• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): $.052$ ($90\\% \\text{ CI } [.045, .059]$, values $\\le .06$ indicate close fit)

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• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): $.044$ (values $\\le .08$ confirm negligible residual error)

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All standardized factor loadings on their designated latent factors were high and statistically significant ($p < .001$): Accessibility (.72 to .84), Trip Details (.78 to .88), Emotional Intensity (.80 to .89), Sharing (.82 to .91), Valence (.81 to .89), Sensory Details (.74 to .85), and Vividness (.82 to .90). Competing alternative model specifications (such as a single-factor common method model and a second-order general memory factor model) yielded substantially inferior fit indices, confirming that a correlated seven-factor first-order structure represents the most psychometrically defensible representation of tourism autobiographical memory.

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10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

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The TMCS is a self-administered, multi-component psychometric questionnaire. Below is the structured technical overview of the instrument:

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• Instrument Name: Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS)

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• Construct Assessed: Phenomenological characteristics of tourism autobiographical memory

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• Target Population: Adult tourists (ages 18 and older) recalling a domestic or international leisure travel experience

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• Administration Format: Paper-and-pencil questionnaire or digital survey (Qualtrics, SurveyMonkey, RedCap)

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• Completion Time: Approximately 5 to 8 minutes

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• Total Item Count: 26 items

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• Subscale Breakdown:\n
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  • Accessibility: 5 items (Items 1 to 5; all reverse-scored)

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  • Trip Details: 3 items (Items 6 to 8)

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  • Emotional Intensity: 4 items (Items 9 to 12)

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  • Sharing: 4 items (Items 13 to 16)

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  • Valence: 3 items (Items 17 to 19)

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  • Sensory Details: 4 items (Items 20 to 23)

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  • Vividness: 3 items (Items 24 to 26)

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• Response Scale: 7-Point Likert Scale:\n
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  • 1 = Strongly Disagree

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  • 2 = Disagree

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  • 3 = Somewhat Disagree

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  • 4 = Neither Agree nor Disagree (Neutral)

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  • 5 = Somewhat Agree

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  • 6 = Agree

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  • 7 = Strongly Agree

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• Scoring and Transformation Protocol:\n
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  • Step 1 (Reverse Coding): All 5 items of the Accessibility subscale must be reverse-coded prior to composite score calculation ($1 \\rightarrow 7, 2 \\rightarrow 6, 3 \\rightarrow 5, 4 \\rightarrow 4, 5 \\rightarrow 3, 6 \\rightarrow 2, 7 \\rightarrow 1$). After reversal, higher scores indicate superior, effortless cognitive accessibility.

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  • Step 2 (Subscale Scoring): Compute the mean score (or arithmetic sum) for each of the seven dimensions individually. Calculating subscale means (ranging from 1.00 to 7.00) is standard practice to preserve the original 7-point metric across subscales with differing item lengths.

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  • Step 3 (Multidimensional Profiling): The TMCS is designed to be interpreted as a multidimensional phenomenological profile. While a composite grand mean can be calculated for global memory strength, researchers are strongly encouraged to retain the individual factor scores to identify specific phenomenological drivers of behavioral intentions.

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11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

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The Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale was published in 2022 in the Journal of Travel Research (Volume 61, Issue 6). The intellectual property and copyright of the original research article and its validated item inventory are held by the authors (Yeongbae Kim, Manuel Alector Ribeiro, and Gang Li) and Sage Publications.

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• Academic and Non-Commercial Research: The TMCS is accessible for non-profit academic research, scientific studies, university theses, and educational purposes under scholarly fair use guidelines, provided that full bibliographic attribution is accorded to the original authors and publication.

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• Commercial and Proprietary Use: Commercial entities, market research agencies, destination marketing consortia, and consulting firms seeking to utilize the scale for commercial diagnostics, monetization, or proprietary evaluation should seek formal licensing permissions through Sage Publications Rights and Permissions or contact the corresponding author directly.

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• Usage Fee: No fees are levied against independent academic investigators conducting non-commercial scholarly research.

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12. References

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Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411

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Boyacioglu, I., & Akfirat, S. (2015). Development and psychometric properties of the Autobiographical Memory Characteristics Questionnaire. Memory, 23(7), 1070–1092. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2014.954696

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Churchill, G. A., Jr. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224377901600110

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Conway, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53(4), 594–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2005.08.005

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Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107(2), 261–288. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261

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Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104

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Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8

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Johnson, M. K., Foley, M. A., Suengas, A. G., & Raye, C. L. (1988). Phenomenological characteristics of memories for perceived and imagined complex events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(4), 371–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.117.4.371

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Kim, Y., Ribeiro, M. A., & Li, G. (2022). Tourism memory characteristics scale: Development and validation. Journal of Travel Research, 61(6), 1308–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875211033355

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Rubin, D. C., Schrauf, R. W., & Greenberg, D. L. (2003). Belief and recollection of autobiographical memories. Memory & Cognition, 31(6), 887–901. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196443

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Sutin, A. R., & Robins, R. W. (2007). Phenomenological properties of autobiographical memories: The Memory Characteristics Questionnaire. Journal of Personality, 75(2), 217–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00438.x

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13. Items of the Scale

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“,n “excerpt”: “The Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS) is a 26-item psychometric instrument measuring seven phenomenological dimensions of tourism autobiographical memory: Accessibility, Trip Details, Emotional Intensity, Sharing, Valence, Sensory Details, and Vividness.”,n “slug”: “tourism-memory-characteristics-scale”,n “categories”: [“Cognitive Psychology”, “Psychometrics”, “Tourism Research”],n “tags”: [“autobiographical memory”, “TMCS”, “tourism psychology”, “Self-Memory System”, “episodic memory”, “scale validation”, “recollection”, “destination marketing”],n “seo_title”: “Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS): Psychometrics & Guide”,n “seo_description”: “A comprehensive guide to the Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale (TMCS), detailing its 7 dimensions, Self-Memory System theory, validity, reliability, and scoring.”,n “focus_keyword”: “Tourism Memory Characteristics Scale”n}