Setting the Record Straight

1. Abstract

The Setting the Record Straight (SRS) scale is a psychometric instrument engineered to evaluate middle childhood and early adolescent social experiences, specifically targeting the dual phenomena of bullying perpetration and peer victimization. Developed by Neil F. Gottheil and Eric F. Dubow (2001a, 2001b), the instrument is distinctive for its simultaneous operationalization of actual subjective experiences (self-reports) alongside metacognitive social appraisals (perceived peer perceptions). Comprising 30 items administered in a dichotomous (True/False) format, the SRS is structured around four primary subscales: Self-Reported Victimization (10 items), Self-Reported Bullying Perpetration (5 items), Perceived Peer-Reported Victimization (10 items), and Perceived Peer-Reported Bullying Perpetration (5 items). By systematically pairing personal accounts of aggressive exchanges with youth estimations of how their classroom peers perceive their social reputations, the SRS enables researchers and clinicians to quantify cognitive discrepancies, social self-efficacy, and reputational accuracy.

Psychometrically, the SRS demonstrates robust internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients across normative school samples typically ranging from .80 to .88 for the victimization dimensions and .70 to .81 for the perpetration dimensions. Confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses substantiate a four-factor structure reflecting the orthogonal separation between bullying and victimization, crossed with the source perspective (self vs. attributed peer appraisal). Criterion-related and construct validity studies verify that SRS scores correspond significantly with independent sociometric peer nominations, teacher evaluations of externalizing and internalizing symptoms, and objective behavioral observations. The measure is featured prominently in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Compendium of Assessment Tools, serving as an empirical cornerstone for evaluating social-cognitive dynamics, hostile attribution biases, and intervention-mediated reductions in school-based violence.

2. Keywords

Setting the Record Straight, Bullying Perpetration, Peer Victimization, Perceived Peer Perceptions, Social Information Processing, Self-Report Assessment, Relational Aggression, School Violence, Gottheil and Dubow, Pediatric Psychometrics, Metacognition in Children

3. Authors

The Setting the Record Straight instrument was formulated and empirically validated by:

• Neil F. Gottheil, Ph.D.: School of Psychology, Psychology Services, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO), 401 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1H 8L1. Contact: [email protected]. Dr. Gottheil's research centers on pediatric clinical psychology, child aggression, socio-emotional adjustment, and the cognitive precursors to peer conflict.
• Eric F. Dubow, Ph.D.: Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA, and the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. Dr. Dubow is an authority on developmental psychopathology, longitudinal models of aggression, social-cognitive problem-solving, and the ecological determinants of youth violence.

4. Purpose

The fundamental purpose of the Setting the Record Straight (SRS) inventory is to deliver a nuanced, dual-perspective psychometric appraisal of bullying and victimization dynamics during the developmentally critical stages of middle childhood and early adolescence. While conventional psychological assessments of school-based violence typically rely exclusively on unidimensional self-reports, teacher nominations, or class-wide sociometric nominations, the SRS systematically integrates respondents' direct behavioral self-descriptions with their cognitive estimations of peer reputation. Bullying is rarely an isolated interpersonal transaction; it functions as a group phenomenon mediated by reputational concerns, peer audience reinforcement, and subjective attributions of status. The SRS was constructed to capture both the behavioral enactment of bullying and victimization and the individual child's cognitive representation of their standing in the peer ecology.

From an applied research perspective, the SRS provides an empirical framework to explore cognitive dissonance, attributional biases, and social-cognitive deficits within children classified as aggressive, victimized, or bully-victims. By juxtaposing an individual child's endorsement of self-perpetration or self-victimization with what they believe their classmates observe, researchers can delineate subgroups characterized by social denial, heightened rejection sensitivity, or strategic reputational inflation. For example, a youth who acknowledges committing physical aggression while believing their peers fail to see it may exhibit clandestine forms of conduct disturbance, whereas a child who believes their classmates perceive them as an easy target regardless of actual victimization events displays internalizing vulnerability, low social self-concept, and learned helplessness.

In clinical, educational, and school psychology contexts, the tool operates as a versatile diagnostic screening instrument and an outcome metric for anti-bullying interventions. School mental health professionals utilize the SRS to identify covert victims who experience silent suffering but believe that their peer group perceives their vulnerability. Conversely, identifying students who possess inflated self-beliefs regarding their capacity to overpower others enables targeted behavioral modifications. Moreover, the inventory fulfills an essential role in longitudinal research, enabling clinical researchers to trace how shifts in peer perception correspond with trajectories of psychological distress, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and disruptive conduct disorders over time.

5. Psychological Construct

The psychological construct assessed by the Setting the Record Straight scale is rooted in the social-cognitive ecology of peer violence. Rather than conceptualizing bullying and victimization as static or mutually exclusive behavioral categories, the SRS operationalizes them as dynamic dimensions intersecting behavioral engagement and metacognitive social awareness. Specifically, the instrument breaks down these constructs across two substantive behavioral domains and two distinct perceptual frames:

Subscale 1: Self-Reported Victimization (10 Items)

This dimension measures the respondent's direct, self-disclosed exposure to peer abuse, harassment, and social subjugation. The items encompass physical aggression (e.g., being beat up, hit, and pushed), verbal harassment (e.g., name-calling, teasing), relational hostility (e.g., having feelings intentionally hurt), and submissive non-defensive responses (e.g., refusing to fight back or defend oneself). A high score on this subscale reflects pervasive personal experience with direct and indirect victimization within the educational setting.

Subscale 2: Self-Reported Bullying Perpetration (5 Items)

This subscale captures overt hostile behaviors directed outward toward peers. It indexes verbal aggression (e.g., making fun of others), unprovoked and retaliatory physical aggression (e.g., hitting, pushing others around, shoving individuals out of the way), active targeting of specific individuals (e.g., having certain kids one likes to bother), and assertive claims of physical dominance (e.g., believing one can beat everyone up). Elevated scores point toward externalizing tendencies, coercive behavioral strategies, and proactive or reactive aggression.

Subscale 3: Perceived Peer-Reported Victimization (10 Items)

This metacognitive dimension assesses the extent to which the respondent believes that their classmates view them as a target of aggression, mockery, and physical intimidation. Items systematically mirror the self-report victimization prompts, framed through the subjective lens of attributed classmate awareness (e.g., “My classmates probably think that kids make fun of me”). This dimension assesses the child's appraisal of their public vulnerability and perceived reputational status within the classroom sociometric hierarchy.

Subscale 4: Perceived Peer-Reported Bullying Perpetration (5 Items)

Mirroring the perpetration subscale, this construct evaluates the student's metacognitive appraisal of their reputation as an aggressor, dominator, or disruptive force in the classroom. By reporting on statements such as whether peers view them as someone who hits, bothers specific kids, or shoves others out of the way, the child reveals their awareness of their aggressive reputation. This construct is critical for assessing whether youth recognize that their disruptive behavior is publicly visible to their broader peer network.

6. Theoretical Framework

The Setting the Record Straight instrument is directly grounded in Social Information Processing (SIP) Theory, primarily articulated by Kenneth A. Dodge and colleagues (Crick & Dodge, 1994). According to the SIP model, children interpret social cues through a sequential, circular progression: encoding of cues, interpretation of cues, clarification of goals, response access or construction, response decision, and behavioral enactment. The SRS operationalizes the cognitive processing of social cues regarding interpersonal threat and dominance by contrasting personal behavioral experiences with perceived external feedback.

In addition to classic SIP theory, the instrument reflects Gottheil and Dubow's (2001b) Tripartite Beliefs Model of Bully and Victim Behavior. This model postulates that youth involvement in bullying or victimization is catalyzed and sustained by three interrelated belief systems: beliefs about the self, beliefs about peers/others, and metacognitive beliefs regarding how one is perceived by the peer group. When a child's beliefs about peer perceptions systematically diverge from their self-reports, cognitive dissonance emerges, altering their coping strategies. For instance, a child experiencing severe victimization who believes the entire classroom views them as an undefended target may internalize feelings of shame and helplessness, cementing a chronic victim status.

Furthermore, the SRS is informed by symbolic interactionist perspectives, particularly Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the “looking-glass self” and George Herbert Mead's formulations of the generalized other. Cooley argued that an individual's self-concept is constructed through their perception of how they appear to others and how others judge that appearance. In the context of school violence, how a child imagines classmates perceive their assertiveness or vulnerability directly informs their behavioral defense mechanisms, aggressive adaptations, and socio-emotional trajectory.

7. Validity

Empirical evaluations of the Setting the Record Straight instrument have established solid convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validity across diverse child and adolescent populations (Gottheil & Dubow, 2001a; CDC Compendium of Assessment Tools, 2011).

Convergent Validity

The convergent validity of the SRS has been demonstrated through strong correlations with established indices of behavioral maladjustment. The Self-Reported Bullying subscale exhibits statistically significant positive correlations (coefficients typically ranging between .42 and .58, p < .001) with teacher-rated externalizing behavior scales, peer sociometric nominations of overt aggression, and youth self-reports on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) Youth Self-Report (YSR) externalizing subscales. Similarly, the SRS Self-Reported Victimization subscale demonstrates robust convergent validity, correlating positively (r = .48 to .63) with peer sociometric nominations of peer rejection, self-reported social anxiety, and standardized indices of internalizing distress such as the Children's Depression Inventory (CDI).

Discriminant and Predictive Validity

Discriminant validity is supported by the distinct factor loadings and low-to-moderate cross-correlations between the Bullying and Victimization dimensions (correlations typically observed between .10 and .28), verifying that perpetration and victimization constitute distinct behavioral dimensions rather than polar ends of a single continuum. Criterion-related predictive validity has been verified via longitudinal investigations, where elevated baseline scores on SRS Perceived Peer Victimization predicted worsening self-esteem and social withdrawal over a one-year follow-up, independent of baseline actual victimization rates. This confirms the hypothesis that a child's perception of peer-attributed weakness exerts an autonomous negative influence on developmental outcomes.

8. Reliability

The psychometric reliability of the Setting the Record Straight scale has been evaluated across multiple elementary and middle school samples, consistently yielding satisfactory internal consistency and temporal stability:

• Internal Consistency (Cronbach's Alpha):
  • Self-Reported Victimization Subscale (10 items): Demonstrates high internal reliability, with alpha coefficients consistently observed between .82 and .88 across normative samples.
  • Perceived Peer-Reported Victimization Subscale (10 items): Exhibits comparable internal consistency, with alpha coefficients ranging from .80 to .86.
  • Self-Reported Bullying Perpetration Subscale (5 items): Reflecting a shorter item count focused on overt physical and verbal dominance, alpha coefficients range between .70 and .78.
  • Perceived Peer-Reported Bullying Perpetration Subscale (5 items): Yields internal consistency estimates spanning .72 to .81.
• Test-Retest Stability: Stability coefficients evaluated across intervals spanning 4 to 8 weeks have shown test-retest reliability indices of r = .74 to .82 for the victimization subscales, and r = .68 to .76 for the bullying perpetration subscales. These metrics indicate that while the SRS measures stable behavioral patterns, it remains sufficiently sensitive to record shifts resulting from educational or psychological interventions.

9. Factor Analysis

The dimensional validity of the SRS was established by Gottheil and Dubow through both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), confirming a clear multi-factor structure.

Initial principal components analyses with varimax and oblimin rotations confirmed four dominant factors reflecting the two core behavioral constructs (Bullying vs. Victimization) bifurcated by the reporting perspective (Self-Experience vs. Perceived Peer-Reputation). Factor loadings for individual items onto their designated primary factors were uniformly robust, consistently exceeding .45, with typical primary loadings ranging from .52 to .79, and cross-loadings remaining below .25.

Subsequent confirmatory factor analyses on independent student cohorts confirmed that a four-factor oblique model offers superior fit compared to alternative one-factor, two-factor (Bullying vs. Victimization only), or two-factor (Self vs. Perceived Peer only) configurations. Structural equation modeling fit indices frequently conform to conventional standards of good fit: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) typically exceeds .92, the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) exceeds .90, and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) remains at or below .054 (with a 90% confidence interval ranging from .041 to .063). These factor-analytic findings confirm that assessing a child's own behavior separately from their belief about their peer reputation is psychometrically sound and empirically justified.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Name: Setting the Record Straight (SRS)
• Authors: Neil F. Gottheil, Ph.D., and Eric F. Dubow, Ph.D.
• Publication Year: 2001
• Target Population: Children and young adolescents (typically Grades 3 through 8; ages 8–14 years).
• Administration Format: Individual or group-administered paper-and-pencil questionnaire, or computerized survey.
• Administration Time: Approximately 10 to 15 minutes.
• Total Number of Items: 30 items.
• Item Format and Architecture: Interleaved self-report and perceived peer-report statements.
• Response Scale: Dichotomous forced-choice format:
  • True = 1 point
  • False = 0 points
• Subscale Breakdown and Scoring Key:
  • Self-Report Victimization Subscale (10 items): Sum of items 2, 4, 6, 10, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24, and 30. (Score range: 0–10)
  • Self-Report Bully Subscale (5 items): Sum of items 8, 12, 20, 26, and 28. (Score range: 0–5)
  • Perceived Peer Perception Victimization Subscale (10 items): Sum of items 1, 3, 5, 9, 13, 15, 17, 21, 23, and 29. (Score range: 0–10)
  • Perceived Peer Perception Bully Subscale (5 items): Sum of items 7, 11, 19, 25, and 27. (Score range: 0–5)
• Interpretation of Scores: Higher scores across each subscale represent greater self-acknowledged or perceived peer-attributed involvement in bullying or victimization. Discrepancy scores (e.g., Self-Report Victimization minus Perceived Peer Victimization) can be calculated to measure cognitive divergence, reputational sensitivity, or attributional bias.

11. Permissions, Fee, and Test Year

The Setting the Record Straight (SRS) scale was published in 2001 in the Journal of Emotional Abuse (The Haworth Press, Inc., later integrated under the Taylor & Francis Group). The instrument is cataloged within the public domain for research and assessment purposes via the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention compendium: Measuring Bullying Victimization, Perpetration, and Bystander Experiences: A Compendium of Assessment Tools (Hamburg, Vivolo, O'Toole, & Dahlberg, 2011), pages 64–65.

For educational, clinical, and non-commercial scientific research, the scale is generally accessible at no cost, provided appropriate academic citation is maintained. Commercial use, translation into other languages for commercial distribution, or inclusion in commercial software packages requires formal permission from the copyright holders and the primary developer. Inquiries regarding adaptation, extensive clinical distribution, or original normative tables may be addressed directly to Dr. Neil F. Gottheil (Psychology Services, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Email: [email protected]).

12. References

• Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 74–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74
• Gottheil, N. F., & Dubow, E. F. (2001a). The interrelationships of behavioral indices of bully and victim behavior. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2–3), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v02n02_06
• Gottheil, N. F., & Dubow, E. F. (2001b). Tripartite beliefs model of bully and victim behavior. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2–3), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v02n02_03
• Hamburger, M. E., Vivolo, A. M., O'Toole, M. P., & Dahlberg, L. L. (2011). Measuring Bullying Victimization, Perpetration, and Bystander Experiences: A Compendium of Assessment Tools. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention, Atlanta, GA. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/bullycompendiumbk-a.pdf
• Salmivalli, C., Lagerspetz, K., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status in the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1996)22:1<1::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-T

13. Items of the Scale