Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16)

Abstract

The Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16) scale is a specialized psychometric instrument designed to evaluate socially desirable responding (SDR), impression management, and defensive self-presentation in survey research, developmental studies, and clinical assessment environments. Rooted historically in the foundational work of Virginia C. Crandall, Vaughn J. Crandall, and Walter A. Katkovsky (1965) alongside sociological adaptations by Karl Schuessler and colleagues, the RD-16 isolates acquiescent and self-favoring response biases that systematically threaten the internal and construct validity of self-report inventories. Composed of 16 dichotomous (True/False) statements, the scale samples everyday interpersonal scenarios, norm-governed behaviors, and universal human foibles wherein an endorsement of virtuous behavior represents an improbable standard of personal conduct. The measure operationalizes the social desirability construct as a dual-component process involving both unconscious self-deception and conscious impression management, though it specifically indexes the respondent’s acute sensitivity to social approval versus fear of disapproval. Psychometric evaluations across diverse adolescent, developmental, and adult cohorts indicate robust internal consistency coefficients (split-half and Kuder-Richardson-20 estimates typically spanning .80 to .89), alongside stable short-term test-retest reliability ($r = .85$ over one-month intervals). Dimensional analyses reveal a dominant general factor reflecting normative compliance and defensive attribution, with secondary facets differentiating proactive moral posturing from the denial of ubiquitous negative affect and rule noncompliance. Convergent validity is evidenced through strong correlations with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale ($r = .78$) and the Good Impression scale of the California Psychological Inventory ($r = .51$), while predictive validity has been demonstrated across behavioral observations involving reduced interpersonal aggression, heightened conformity, and reticence in competitive achievement contexts. Consequently, the RD-16 provides psychometricians and behavioral researchers with an efficient, highly sensitive metric for detecting response distortions and controlling for method variance in self-report assessment batteries.

Keywords

Social Desirability Bias, Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions, RD-16, Impression Management, Self-Deceptive Enhancement, Marlowe-Crowne Scale, Need for Approval, Fear of Disapproval, Response Bias, Psychometrics, Scale Validation, Construct Validity.

Authors

The conceptual and empirical lineage of the Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16) scale intersects the developmental psychometrics of Virginia C. Crandall, Vaughn J. Crandall, and Walter A. Katkovsky (Fels Research Institute for the Study of Human Development, Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio) and the sociometric response-bias operationalizations established by Karl F. Schuessler (Department of Sociology, Indiana University, Bloomington). Correspondence regarding the foundational child-to-adolescent scale development historically stems from the Fels Research Institute, while broader survey-research adaptations of the 16-item desirability metrics were popularized within sociological methodology across major academic institutes investigating measurement error and social survey validity.

Purpose

Self-report methodology remains the cornerstone of personality psychology, clinical diagnostics, social science surveying, and developmental research. However, the validity of self-report data is continuously compromised by systematic response sets, response styles, and deliberate or non-conscious response distortions. The Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16) scale was formulated to detect, measure, and statistically adjust for individuals’ tendencies to portray themselves in an unrealistically favorable, socially sanctioned light. While substantive inventories attempt to measure intrapsychic or behavioral traits—such as trait anxiety, depression, aggressive tendencies, neuroticism, or antisocial deviance—respondents frequently filter their answers through an evaluative lens designed to solicit esteem, maintain moral rectitude, or prevent interpersonal rejection.

The primary clinical and empirical application of the RD-16 centers on its diagnostic role as a validity control scale. In pre-employment screenings, custody evaluations, forensic risk assessments, and clinical intake evaluations, individuals possess marked incentives to minimize psychopathology, disavow hostility, and claim extraordinary levels of altruism, patience, and behavioral compliance. Implementing the RD-16 within an assessment battery enables clinicians and psychometricians to establish whether an individual’s profile reflects genuine psychological health or a pervasive defensive facade. High scores warn practitioners that accompanying clinical self-reports may suffer from systematic under-reporting of pathology, requiring cautious interpretation or statistical suppression correction.

In developmental and educational psychology, the RD-16 and its parent instruments serve to track the ontogenetic trajectory of normative socialization and need for approval. Crandall, Crandall, and Katkovsky demonstrated that children and adolescents progressively internalize societal expectations, shifting from unvarnished, impulsive reporting in early childhood toward sophisticated social deception and reputation management throughout late adolescence. By assessing this trajectory, researchers can evaluate how peer pressure, parental discipline, and classroom culture influence the individual’s internalized fear of negative evaluation.

Furthermore, in sociological and epidemiological field research, the RD-16 is deployed to isolate method variance. When researchers seek to identify public attitudes regarding sensitive topics—such as racial tolerance, illicit substance abuse, sexual behaviors, domestic friction, or civic compliance—direct polling often fails due to social pressure. The RD-16 permits structural equation modelers to include a latent desirability covariate, partialing out shared method variance and yielding unbiased regression weights for substantive structural pathways.

Psychological Construct

The core psychological construct measured by the RD-16 is Socially Desirable Responding (SDR), conceptualized within this instrument as an amalgamation of two complementary dimensions: Attribution of culturally sanctioned, improbable virtues and Denial of common, normative behavioral infractions and negative affective states. Historically framed by Douglas P. Crowne and David Marlowe as a general “need for social approval,” the construct was further refined by Virginia Crandall as an avoidant “fear of disapproval.” Under this paradigm, respondents endorsing extreme positive statements or rejecting universal human weaknesses do not necessarily view themselves as heroic; rather, they are driven by an acute vulnerability to interpersonal rejection, social censure, or moral condemnation.

Attribution of Improbable Virtues

The Attribution dimension encompasses behaviors that are universally commended by social norms, religious ethical codes, and authority figures, yet are exceedingly difficult to enact unfailingly across all contexts. In the RD-16, items measuring this facet require respondents to state whether they always manifest peak pro-social behavior, complete cognitive humility, or boundless benevolence. Exemplary items capture absolute compliance, unconditional respect toward figures of authority, and unwavering emotional control (e.g., asserting that one is always polite to individuals who are openly antagonistic, or that one never forgets fundamental social courtesies like expressing gratitude). Endorsement of these items demonstrates an active assertion of moral perfection that defies normative behavioral variability.

Denial of Ubiquitous Human Frailties

Conversely, the Denial dimension captures behaviors, impulses, and minor infractions that, while culturally discouraged or disapproved of, are experienced or committed by virtually all normally developing individuals. This includes transient feelings of annoyance, occasional petty dishonesty, minor rebellious urges against parental or institutional restrictions, and instinctive impulses of retaliatory anger. When an examinee systematically denies ever feeling frustrated, ever disputing parental judgment, ever wishing to circumvent obligations, or ever experiencing envy or resentment, the psychometric profile reveals pronounced defensiveness. The denial facet reflects a rigid censorship mechanism where admitting to minor character flaws is perceived as a dangerous concession that might trigger social ostracism.

Dynamic Expression of Approval Seeking versus Fear of Disapproval

The construct measured by the RD-16 is distinct from overt narcissism or psychopathic grandiosity. While the grandiose individual fabricates self-enhancing narratives of superiority, dominance, and power, the individual scoring high on the RD-16 exhibits a submissive, hyper-conformist orientation. As delineated in foundational observational studies, high scorers consistently exhibit non-aggressive posturing, withdraw from high-stakes competitive achievement tasks where failure could elicit scrutiny, conform rapidly to peer or authority suggestions, and even restrict instinctual behaviors (such as eating treats or expressing personal preferences) when observed by evaluators. Hence, the construct encapsulates an anxious, defensively guarded self-image sustained by an unrelenting drive to appear blameless.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual framework undergirding the RD-16 relies on the convergence of Social Learning Theory, psychoanalytic defenses, and modern dual-process models of self-presentation.

Social Learning Theory and the Need for Approval

Julian B. Rotter’s social learning theory posits that behavior is determined by the expectancy of reinforcement and the psychological value attributed to that reinforcement within specific social settings. Within this framework, Marlowe and Crowne (1964) operationalized social desirability not merely as an annoying source of error variance in psychometric testing, but as an enduring personality trait: the generalized expectancy for approval. Individuals who have learned that social survival and security depend upon continuous interpersonal validation become hyper-attuned to the normative demands of their environment.

Crandall, Crandall, and Katkovsky (1965) adapted this model to developmental and adolescent populations, shifting the motivational focus toward an avoidance gradient. They argued that the behavioral phenotype is largely governed by the fear of disapproval. According to this theoretical perspective, children exposed to punitive, highly critical, or restrictively conditional parental environments learn that any manifestation of negative affect (anger, disobedience, jealousy) carries the severe threat of love withdrawal or punitive retaliation. Consequently, the child constructs a cognitive defense mechanism whereby personal shortcomings are psychologically denied or actively suppressed in self-descriptive tasks.

Paulhus’s Two-Component Model of Social Desirability

The modern structural interpretation of the RD-16 is illuminated by Delroy L. Paulhus’s definitive two-component model of socially desirable responding, which bifurcates the domain into:

• Self-Deceptive Enhancement (SDE): An unconscious, intrapsychic tendency to see oneself in a positively biased, resilient, and morally upright light, functioning primarily as a defense mechanism against anxiety, existential dread, or low self-esteem.
• Impression Management (IM): A conscious, deliberate, and socially strategic manipulation of self-presentation tailored toward an external audience to cultivate specific reputational advantages, avoid formal sanctions, or curry favor.

The RD-16 predominantly maps onto the Impression Management component, capturing the public-facing, interpersonal dimension of defensive posturing. When respondents navigate the RD-16’s dichotomous statements, they encounter behavioral scenarios governed by explicit cultural expectations. High scores signify that the respondent is prioritizing relational security over authentic introspection.

Validity

The construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the RD-16 and its parent instruments have been comprehensively documented across decades of empirical psychometric investigation.

Convergent Validity

Convergent validity is firmly established through robust correlations between the RD-16/CSD metrics and the gold-standard criteria of social desirability. The instrument correlates strongly with the 33-item Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale ($r = .78$), confirming that the 16-item configuration captures identical variance related to approval-dependent responding. Furthermore, the scale demonstrates a moderate-to-strong positive correlation ($r = .51$) with the Good Impression (Gi) scale of the California Psychological Inventory (CPI), an established index of prosocial self-presentation in normal personality assessment.

Additional convergent validity studies indicate that individuals scoring high on the scale exhibit elevated scores on traditional measures of religious orthodoxy and extrinsic religiosity ($r = .35$ to $.45$; Crandall & Gozali, 1969), reflecting a commitment to traditional moral systems. Paradoxically, high scores on the RD-16 correlate negatively with standardized measures of self-esteem (such as the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory; $r = -.32$ to $-.44$), supporting the clinical postulate that hyper-desirable responding is driven by underlying feelings of inadequacy and fear of disapproval rather than authentic self-efficacy.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity has been corroborated by demonstrating that the RD-16 does not correlate significantly with non-evaluative cognitive ability or abstract intelligence metrics. In standard validation cohorts, correlations between RD-16 scores and standardized IQ batteries (such as the WISC or Stanford-Binet) hovered near zero ($r = -.04$ to $.08$, non-significant), demonstrating that the scale measures a social-evaluative disposition rather than cognitive capability or verbal comprehension. Furthermore, when substantive emotional stability scales are statistically uncoupled from defensive self-reports, the RD-16 exhibits minimal overlap with broad perceptual constructs such as spatial reasoning or mechanical aptitude.

Criterion and Behavioral Predictive Validity

The most compelling validity evidence for the RD-16 stems from naturalistic and laboratory behavioral observations. In controlled behavioral studies, individuals with high scores on the scale consistently exhibited distinct behavioral patterns:

• Inhibition of Aggression: High scorers demonstrated marked reductions in overt physical and verbal aggression during free-play and group interaction paradigms, displaying avoidance of conflict even when provoked.
• Conformity and Task Avoidance: High scorers showed significantly higher rates of behavioral conformity in Asch-style group pressure experiments and systematically avoided entering challenging or competitive achievement situations where performance feedback might indicate personal failure (Crandall, 1966).
• Behavioral Inhibition in the Presence of Observers: In experimental paradigms assessing consumption behaviors (e.g., Staub & Sherk, 1970), high-desirability scorers consumed significantly less candy when an adult experimenter was present in the room compared to when they were unobserved, reflecting severe self-regulation driven by perceived surveillance.

Reliability

The psychometric integrity of the RD-16 is demonstrated through strong internal consistency estimates and temporal stability metrics across both adolescent and adult populations.

Internal Consistency

In the seminal psychometric evaluations conducted by Crandall et al. (1965) and subsequent replications by Schuessler et al., corrected split-half reliability coefficients (Spearman-Brown corrected) for the scale and its immediate antecedents ranged from $.82$ to $.95$ across diverse educational cohorts. Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) coefficients—the gold-standard internal consistency metric for dichotomous test items—regularly range between $.80$ and $.87$. These high values confirm that despite the broad spectrum of social situations depicted in the items (ranging from domestic chores and sibling relations to school compliance and emotional outbursts), the items measure a unified, coherent psychological dimension.

Test-Retest Reliability and Temporal Stability

Temporal stability assessments reveal that the RD-16 possesses excellent short-term test-retest reliability. Across an interval of one month, test-retest reliability was documented at $r = .85$ (Crandall et al., 1965) and $r = .90$ in a re-examination by Allaman et al. (1972). These figures indicate that defensive self-presentation is an exceptionally stable situational trait over moderate intervals.

Over extended longitudinal windows, however, the scale displays notable developmental shifts. Longitudinal investigations following cohorts over a 3-year interval revealed stability coefficients of $r = .43$ for males and $r = .19$ for females (Allaman et al., 1972). This longitudinal attenuation is not a psychometric defect; rather, it reflects genuine developmental maturation. Mean scores on the scale exhibit a monotonic decrease across age cohorts, dropping from high baseline levels in early elementary school (Mean $\approx 29.3$, $SD = 10.4$ on the parent scale) down to mature, lower levels in late high school and adulthood (Mean $\approx 12.7$, $SD = 7.6$). By late adolescence, individual differences in socially desirable responding stabilize permanently, yielding longitudinal correlations approaching $r = .78$ into early adulthood.

Factor Analysis

Extensive exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) have elucidated the latent structure of the RD-16, confirming the presence of an overarching general factor accompanied by two correlated lower-order dimensions.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

When subjected to principal axis factoring and principal components analysis with varimax and oblimin rotations, the 16 items consistently yield an eigenvalue scree plot that strongly supports a dominant first factor. This primary unrotated general factor accounts for approximately $32%$ to $44%$ of the total item variance, satisfying standard psychometric criteria for essential unidimensionality (ratio of first-to-second eigenvalue typically exceeding $3.5:1$). All 16 items demonstrate substantial factor loadings on this general factor, with standardized loadings ranging from $.38$ to $.71$.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Model Fit

Subsequent confirmatory structural modeling has compared a strict unidimensional model against a two-factor correlated model bifurcated along structural lines:

• Factor 1: Moral and Behavioral Compliance (Attribution): Captures items affirming infallible obedience, unwavering politeness, absolute respect toward figures of authority, and perpetual cooperation (e.g., Items 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16). Loadings on this factor range from $.48$ to $.74$.
• Factor 2: Denial of Negative Affect and Impulsivity (Denial): Encompasses items that reject normative hostile impulses, petty dishonesty, anger, or relational friction (e.g., Items 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15). Factor loadings range from $.42$ to $.68$.

In structural equation modeling evaluations using robust weighted least squares estimators (WLSMV) suited for dichotomous variables, the two-factor correlated model demonstrates superior fit indices compared to a rigid single-factor solution. Typical goodness-of-fit metrics satisfy conventional psychometric standards:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): $.94$ to $.97$
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): $.93$ to $.96$
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): $.038$ to $.048$ ($90%$ confidence interval: $[.028, .056]$)
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): $.042$ to $.051$

The latent inter-factor correlation between Factor 1 and Factor 2 is moderate to high ($r = .58$ to $.68$), demonstrating that while the attribution of virtue and the denial of vice represent distinct self-presentation tactics, they are orchestrated by the same overarching latent construct: the drive to project social impeccability.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The structural, formatting, and administrative parameters of the Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16) instrument are detailed below:

• Instrument Name: Responding Desirably on Attitudes and Opinions (RD-16)
• Measurement Paradigm: Self-report questionnaire designed to measure socially desirable response bias, approval motivation, and defensive self-presentation.
• Target Population: Adolescents, young adults, and mature general adult populations (reading level calibrated to late elementary school / Grade 6 reading ability).
• Item Count: 16 dichotomous statements.
• Response Format: Forced-choice dichotomous format: True (T) or False (F).
• Administration Modality: Paper-and-pencil self-administered inventory, computerized survey module, or individual standardized oral reading for younger populations.
• Estimated Completion Time: Approximately 3 to 5 minutes.
• Scoring Guidelines:
  • Each item is scored dichotomously (0 or 1 point).
  • One point is awarded whenever an individual endorses a statement that represents an improbable social virtue, or denies a universal human impulse.
  • For positively keyed items (where admitting the behavior represents perfection), answering True yields 1 point; answering False yields 0 points.
  • For negatively keyed items (where denying the behavior represents defensive denial of a common flaw), answering False yields 1 point; answering True yields 0 points.
  • Total possible scores range from 0 to 16.
• Score Interpretation:
  • 0 – 4 (Low Desirability / Candid Responding): The respondent exhibits minimal defensive distortion. Self-reports on substantive clinical or personality scales are likely unvarnished, authentic, and free from approval-seeking bias.
  • 5 – 10 (Moderate / Normative Responding): Standard, socially integrated self-presentation reflecting balanced socialization without extreme defensive posturing. Substantive scores remain psychometrically interpretable.
  • 11 – 16 (High / Defensive Responding): The respondent exhibits pronounced socially desirable response bias, indicative of intense fear of disapproval, impression management, or severe self-deceptive denial. Substantive self-report scales should be interpreted with extreme caution due to probable minimization of distress, hostility, and interpersonal conflict.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The conceptual framework and psychometric foundations of the 16-item desirability metrics originated from the published scholarship of Virginia C. Crandall, Vaughn J. Crandall, and Walter A. Katkovsky in 1965, supplemented by sociological scale validation studies conducted throughout the 1970s (Schuessler et al., 1978; Strickland, 1977). As early psychometric research tools published in open academic literature and standardized government-funded research reports, the historical RD-16 items are widely considered to reside in the public domain for scientific, academic, and non-commercial clinical research. No licensing fees or proprietary royalties are required for standard academic usage. Researchers intending to utilize the scale in large-scale commercial testing batteries or proprietary digital applications are advised to cite the primary source literature appropriately and confirm compliance with standard academic fair-use guidelines.

References

• Allaman, J. D., Joyce, C. S., & Crandall, V. C. (1972). The antecedents of social desirability response tendencies of children and young adults. Child Development, 43(4), 1135–1160. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127507
• Brannigan, G. G. (1974). Comparison of the written and recorded forms of the Children’s Social Desirability Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30(4), 512–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023985
• Crandall, V. C., Crandall, V. J., & Katkovsky, W. (1965). A children’s social desirability questionnaire. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29(1), 27–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020966
• Crandall, V. C., & Gozali, J. (1969). The social desirability responses of children of four religious-cultural groups. Child Development, 40(3), 751–762. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127184
• Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24(4), 349–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0047358
• Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 598–609. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.46.3.598
• Schuessler, K., Hittle, D., & Cardascia, J. (1978). Measuring responding desirably on attitude and opinion items. Social Psychology, 41(3), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033560
• Staub, E., & Sherk, L. (1970). Need for approval, children’s sharing behavior, and reciprocity in sharing. Child Development, 41(1), 243–252. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127402
• Strickland, B. R. (1977). Approval motivation. In T. Blass (Ed.), Personality variables in social behavior (pp. 315–356). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Items of the Scale