New Personal Fable Scale

1. Abstract

The New Personal Fable Scale (NPFS) is an established self-report psychometric instrument designed to operationalize and measure the multi-dimensional constructs of adolescent egocentrism, specifically the personal fable phenomenon as reconceptualized within contemporary social-cognitive and developmental frameworks. Developed primarily by Daniel K. Lapsley and colleagues, the scale departs from traditional Piagetian structural-cognitive deficits and situates the personal fable within the normative developmental process of adolescent separation-individuation. Comprising 46 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly agree”), the NPFS delineates three distinct yet interrelated psychological dimensions: Omnipotence (19 items), reflecting beliefs of exceptional authority, personal power, and special agency; Personal Uniqueness (13 items), capturing convictions that one’s subjective experiences, thoughts, and emotional states are fundamentally novel, incomparable, and incomprehensible to others; and Invulnerability (14 items), measuring perceptions of personal immunity from physical danger, psychological distress, and the conventional consequences of high-risk behavior.

Extensive psychometric investigations have affirmed the empirical integrity of the NPFS across diverse adolescent, emerging adult, and cross-cultural samples. The internal consistency of the subscales typically demonstrates adequate to strong reliability, with reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients averaging approximately α = .74 to .83 for Omnipotence, α = .64 to .78 for Personal Uniqueness, and α = .60 to .76 for Invulnerability. Structural validity has been repeatedly corroborated via both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, supporting a robust three-factor latent architecture. Construct validity is demonstrated through systematic associations with adolescent risk-taking, sensation seeking, self-esteem, psychological resilience, depressive symptomatology, and interpersonal coping strategies. By differentiating adaptive self-regulatory components from maladaptive cognitive biases, the NPFS remains an essential instrument for developmental, clinical, educational, and behavioral research.

2. Keywords

New Personal Fable Scale, NPFS, adolescent egocentrism, personal fable, omnipotence, personal uniqueness, invulnerability, separation-individuation, Daniel K. Lapsley, risk-taking behavior, psychometrics

3. Authors

The New Personal Fable Scale was originated and developed by Daniel K. Lapsley, Ph.D., an eminent developmental and educational psychologist, along with his research collaborators at the Department of Psychology, Ball State University and later expanded and maintained through his academic tenure at the University of Notre Dame.

• Primary Author: Daniel K. Lapsley, Ph.D.
• Academic Affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, United States.
• Institutional Profile: ACE College Professor of Psychology, University of Notre Dame.
• Primary Contact Information: [email protected]
• Key Early Collaborators: D. P. FitzGerald, K. G. Rice, and S. Jackson (collaborators on the original empirical operationalization of the “New Look” adolescent egocentrism batteries).

4. Purpose

The primary purpose of the New Personal Fable Scale (NPFS) is to provide an empirically rigorous, standardized psychometric measure of the personal fable construct during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Historically, adolescent egocentrism was conceptualized by David Elkind (1967) as a direct byproduct of the onset of formal operational thought, wherein newly emerging cognitive capacities induce a temporary failure in differentiation between the adolescent’s mental preoccupations and the external thoughts of others. Elkind posited that this developmental aberration yields two primary cognitive illusions: the imaginary audience (the conviction that one is constantly the focus of everyone else’s attention) and the personal fable (the belief in one’s absolute uniqueness, omnipotence, and invulnerability to harm).

However, methodological and conceptual limitations of early instruments—such as the Personal Fable Aspect of the Adolescent Egocentrism Scale (AES)—prompted Lapsley and colleagues to construct the NPFS. The theoretical rationale underpinning the NPFS is rooted in Lapsley’s “New Look” model, which disconnects personal fable ideation from logical-cognitive operations and repositions it as an essential social-cognitive mechanism underlying adolescent separation-individuation. As adolescents renegotiate their relational bonds with primary caregivers and seek autonomy, they generate self-protective, highly individualized psychological illusions. The NPFS was designed to measure these self-narratives with higher psychometric precision, providing distinct subscale scoring rather than a crude composite index.

In applied and clinical settings, the NPFS serves multiple diagnostic and preventative functions:

• Adolescent Behavioral Risk Assessment: The Invulnerability subscale serves as a crucial predictor of adolescent involvement in health-compromising behaviors, including substance misuse, reckless vehicular driving, unsafe sexual practices, and delinquency. Evaluating perceived invulnerability enables health educators and school psychologists to identify youth who discount probabilistic negative consequences.
• Internalizing Symptoms and Depressive Vulnerability: Paradoxically, the Personal Uniqueness subscale has been linked clinically to feelings of profound alienation, internalizing problems, suicidal ideation, and loneliness. Adolescents who hold exaggerated views of their uniqueness often perceive that no one—neither peers nor adults—can comprehend their inner distress, exacerbating isolation during mental health crises.
• Ego Development and Resilient Coping: The Omnipotence subscale captures feelings of mastery, agency, and social leadership. When calibrated adaptively, omnipotent ideation functions as an internal psychological buffer, supporting self-esteem, goal pursuit, and academic resilience during stressful developmental transitions.
• Educational and Developmental Research: The scale enables researchers to track trajectories of socio-emotional maturity, self-concept differentiation, and personal agency across middle school, high school, and university populations.

5. Psychological Construct

The psychological construct measured by the NPFS is the personal fable, operationalized as a triad of distinct yet complementary cognitive-affective belief systems. Rather than viewing the personal fable as a monolithic or strictly pathological distortion, the NPFS models it as a multidimensional constellation of developmental narratives that support the emerging self-system. Below is an exhaustive breakdown of each constitutive dimension.

5.1. Omnipotence

The Omnipotence dimension encompasses an adolescent’s subjective sense of boundless capability, interpersonal influence, psychological authority, and personal agency. Within this construct, individuals conceptualize themselves as uniquely powerful agents capable of achieving extraordinary feats, directing the actions and opinions of their peer groups, and overcoming structural or environmental obstacles through sheer willpower. Examples of operationalized indicators within this dimension include believing that one can achieve any goal one sets one’s mind to, viewing oneself as inherently more persuasive than peers, and perceiving oneself as a natural leader whom others consistently follow.

Importantly, empirical research suggests that omnipotence operates largely as an adaptive self-regulatory asset. In moderation, it mirrors generalized self-efficacy and psychological hardiness. When adolescents perceive themselves as capable of mastering challenging environments, they exhibit higher persistence, greater academic engagement, and lower vulnerability to depressive affect. However, extreme or narcissistic manifestations of omnipotence can result in interpersonal friction, entitlement, and difficulties accepting legitimate authority.

5.2. Personal Uniqueness

The Personal Uniqueness dimension measures the belief that one’s personal identity, internal emotional reality, and existential journey are entirely novel, unprecedented, and distinct from those of all other human beings. Individuals scoring high on this dimension assert that no peer, family member, or mentor can genuinely understand the depth, complexity, or nuance of their internal feelings and worldview. Illustrative assertions include feelings that “no one has the same thoughts and feelings I have,” “nobody will ever know what I am really like,” and “no one sees the world the way that I do.”

Developmentally, personal uniqueness serves the psychological imperative of differentiation during the individuation process. It enables the developing adolescent to separate their psychic identity from parental expectations. Nonetheless, personal uniqueness exhibits a well-documented “double-edged sword” profile. While fostering individual identity and creative expression, high levels of personal uniqueness are robustly correlated with subjective loneliness, feelings of severe alienation, perceived lack of social support, and internalizing distress. When youth believe that their inner suffering is entirely beyond peer comprehension, help-seeking behavior is substantially impeded.

5.3. Invulnerability

The Invulnerability dimension reflects an individual’s subjective sense of immunity from the natural laws of probability, physical trauma, psychological vulnerability, and the adverse consequences of risky behavior. Adolescents characterized by high invulnerability acknowledge that high-risk behaviors—such as reckless driving, substance experimentation, or physical fights—carry known hazards, yet they firmly believe that negative outcomes apply solely to others. Sample thematic assertions include believing that one can engage in dangerous activities without getting hurt or caught, feeling essentially “indestructible,” and reporting that it is virtually impossible for others to hurt one’s feelings.

Subsequent psychometric scholarship (e.g., Lapsley et al.) has further teased apart invulnerability into physical invulnerability (insusceptibility to injury, disease, or death) and psychological invulnerability (emotional toughness, stoicism, and insensitivity to social rejection or reputational injury). Within the standard 46-item NPFS, these components are jointly integrated into an overarching invulnerability index. Clinically, invulnerability serves as a direct cognitive catalyst for adolescent health-risk behavior, reckless experimentation, and low compliance with safety regulations.

6. Theoretical Framework

The conceptual genesis of the New Personal Fable Scale is anchored in the theoretical dialogue between Jean Piaget’s cognitive-developmental paradigm, David Elkind’s formulation of adolescent egocentrism, and Daniel K. Lapsley’s socio-cognitive “New Look” theoretical framework.

6.1. The Classical Elkind Paradigm

In 1967, David Elkind extended Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development by introducing the construct of adolescent egocentrism. Piaget maintained that transitions into new cognitive stages are initially accompanied by cognitive decentering deficits. Elkind argued that when adolescents attain formal operational thinking—specifically hypothetical-deductive reasoning—they acquire the capacity to conceptualize not only their own thoughts but also the hypothetical thoughts of other people. However, novice formal operational thinkers fail to clearly differentiate between the primary object of their own attention (the newly transforming self) and the object of other people’s attention.

Consequently, the adolescent assumes that others are as obsessed with their appearance, emotions, and behaviors as they are themselves (the imaginary audience). As a defensive, compensating psychological superstructure to this perceived unrelenting scrutiny, the adolescent constructs a grandiose self-concept: the personal fable. According to Elkind, the personal fable represents an early cognitive distortion where the young person conceptualizes themselves as universally special, impervious to mortality or misfortune, and fundamentally immortal. In classical Piagetian-Elkindian theory, the personal fable was expected to peak in early adolescence (ages 11–13) and systematically decline as formal operations consolidate through interpersonal peer interaction.

6.2. The “New Look” Revision by Lapsley and Colleagues

By the late 1980s, extensive empirical research failed to confirm Elkind’s core developmental predictions. Numerous empirical studies revealed that formal operational reasoning did not consistently correlate with, nor predict, the personal fable. Furthermore, imaginary audience and personal fable ideation did not simply vanish in late adolescence; rather, these cognitions persisted across late adolescence and emerging adulthood. To address these theoretical discrepancies, Daniel K. Lapsley and colleagues proposed the “New Look” model of adolescent egocentrism.

Drawing heavily from psychodynamic developmental theory, particularly Peter Blos’s (1967) model of the “second individuation process,” Lapsley argued that egocentrism is not a structural cognitive deficit, but a functional social-cognitive mechanism that facilitates separation-individuation. During this period, adolescents must psychologically untangle themselves from their childhood parental representations to establish an autonomous adult identity. This developmental task requires a profound internal psychic reorganization:

• Ego Separation and Autonomy: As adolescents withdraw psychic energy from idealized parental introjects, they experience temporary internal vulnerability, ego fragility, and anxiety.
• Restorative Illusions: To counteract feelings of abandonment, isolation, and diminutive self-worth during individuation, the ego deploys the personal fable. Omnipotence restores a sense of mastery; Personal Uniqueness validates the adolescent’s emergent subjective identity; and Invulnerability shields the emerging ego from the intimidating realization of physical and psychological precarity.
• Social-Perspective Taking: Rather than reflecting a lack of perspective-taking ability, the personal fable actually emerges from sophisticated, advancing interpersonal perspective-taking skills (e.g., Robert Selman’s third-person and societal perspective-taking stages). Adolescents construct fables precisely because they can reflect upon themselves from an external, generalized vantage point.

The NPFS was therefore engineered specifically to operationalize these self-regulatory narratives, enabling scholars to examine how personal fable dimensions operate alongside parental attachment, ego identity statuses, and psychological adjustment.

7. Validity

The psychometric validity of the New Personal Fable Scale has been established through numerous empirical investigations assessing construct, convergent, discriminant, and criterion-predictive validity across broad developmental cohorts.

7.1. Construct Validity

Construct validity for the NPFS is demonstrated by its confirmed three-factor internal structure and its developmental trajectory across adolescent transitions. Empirical studies corroborate that while personal fable scores fluctuate across adolescence, they do not follow the sharp linear decline predicted by classical cognitive theory; instead, omnipotence and invulnerability remain stable or adaptively reorganize across late adolescence and the transition to higher education. Correlations between NPFS subscales and measures of separation-individuation—such as the Separation-Individuation Test of Adolescence (SITA) and the Pathological Individuation Scale—confirm that personal fable ideation rises in direct correspondence with individuation-related conflicts, dependency anxiety, and identity exploratory processes.

7.2. Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Extensive correlational investigations confirm expected patterns of convergence and divergence with well-validated psychological constructs:

• Self-Esteem and Psychological Agency: The Omnipotence subscale demonstrates strong, positive convergent correlations with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (typically r = .40 to .58, p < .001) and general self-efficacy scales, validating its role as an indicator of subjective mastery and internal locus of control. Conversely, Omnipotence is negatively correlated with social anxiety and depressive affect.
• Internalizing Distress and Alienation: The Personal Uniqueness subscale exhibits robust convergent validity with indices of loneliness (UCLA Loneliness Scale), alienation, depressive symptoms (CES-D, BDI), and perceived social isolation (r values typically ranging from .25 to .42, p < .01). Furthermore, discriminant validity is demonstrated by its weak or non-significant correlations with purely physical risk-taking traits.
• Risk Propensity and Sensation Seeking: The Invulnerability subscale correlates positively and significantly with Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale, particularly Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition (r = .35 to .52), as well as generalized measures of impulsivity and risk orientation.

7.3. Criterion and Predictive Validity

Predictive validity investigations consistently indicate that NPFS subscales significantly account for unique variance in behavioral outcomes. In structural equation modeling studies examining adolescent risk-taking, the Invulnerability subscale serves as a direct, independent predictor of substance use, unprotected sexual activity, and dangerous driving behaviors, even after controlling for demographic factors and peer pressure. Meanwhile, Jowkar and Noorafshan (2011) investigated the predictive utility of the NPFS regarding psychological resilience among male and female students, revealing that while Omnipotence significantly predicts higher resilience, high Personal Uniqueness predicts compromised coping resilience and heightened emotional vulnerability.

8. Reliability

The reliability of the New Personal Fable Scale has been examined across numerous empirical studies using internal consistency metrics and temporal stability (test-retest) indices across varying cultural contexts.

8.1. Internal Consistency

Across multiple adolescent and emerging adult cohorts, the NPFS has shown adequate to robust internal consistency. In initial validation studies by Lapsley and colleagues, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the three subscales were reported within acceptable psychometric ranges for personality inventories:

• Omnipotence Subscale (α): Consistently displays the highest internal consistency, typically ranging between .74 and .84 across high school and undergraduate samples. The 19 items systematically capture leadership, capability, and interpersonal assertiveness with high inter-item homogeneity.
• Personal Uniqueness Subscale (α): Generally yields alpha coefficients ranging between .64 and .78. Although slightly lower due to the nuanced conceptual breadth of unique affective experiences, the coefficient demonstrates sufficient internal consistency for group-level and correlational research.
• Invulnerability Subscale (α): Typically reports internal consistency coefficients ranging between .60 and .76. In certain adaptations (such as the Iranian validation by Jowkar & Noorafshan, 2011), Invulnerability yielded an alpha of α = .60, while Personal Uniqueness yielded α = .64, and Omnipotence achieved α = .74. Researchers have noted that splitting invulnerability into separate physical and psychological facets can further optimize internal consistency indices.

8.2. Test-Retest Reliability and Temporal Stability

Short-term test-retest reliability across 3- to 6-week intervals has demonstrated strong temporal stability, with Pearson correlation coefficients exceeding r = .78 for Omnipotence, r = .72 for Invulnerability, and r = .70 for Personal Uniqueness. Longitudinal evaluations across one- to two-year intervals reveal moderate stability coefficients (ranging from .45 to .60), which align with developmental expectations: as adolescents navigate separation-individuation, their personal fable schemas naturally evolve and recalibrate in response to life experiences, collegiate environments, and interpersonal maturation.

9. Factor Analysis

The structural composition of the New Personal Fable Scale has been subjected to rigorous exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) across diverse adolescent and adult populations.

9.1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

During the initial development of the NPFS, principal axis factoring with both orthogonal (Varimax) and oblique (Promax) rotations was conducted on the pool of candidate items. EFA consistently yielded a primary three-factor solution based on Kaiser’s eigenvalue-greater-than-one criterion and Cattell’s scree test evaluation. These three empirical components mapped cleanly onto the hypothesized theoretical dimensions:

• Factor 1: Omnipotence. Marked by substantial factor loadings (predominantly ranging from .40 to .72) on items referencing perceived leadership, interpersonal persuasiveness, personal effectiveness, and social authority (e.g., Item 1: “I believe I can do anything I set my mind to”; Item 19: “I think I’m a powerful person”).
• Factor 2: Invulnerability. Characterized by high loadings (ranging from .38 to .68) on items referencing subjective immunity from harm, danger-seeking enjoyment, and imperviousness to emotional injury (e.g., Item 29: “There are times when I think that I am indestructible”; Item 42: “It is easy for me to take risks because I never get hurt or caught”).
• Factor 3: Personal Uniqueness. Defined by prominent loadings (ranging from .36 to .65) on items assessing idiosyncratic existential isolation, unshared emotional states, and unique perceptions (e.g., Item 3: “No one has the same thoughts and feelings I have”; Item 9: “I’m the only one that can really understand me”).

9.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Model Fit

Subsequent psychometric investigations have subjected the 46-item three-factor structure to confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling software (e.g., LISREL, AMOS, Mplus). In cross-cultural adaptations (e.g., Jowkar & Noorafshan, 2011; Goossens et al., 2002), the three-factor latent model was tested against competing one-factor (unidimensional egocentrism) and two-factor models.

The three-factor model consistently demonstrates superior fit to the empirical data. Representative fit indices reported in CFA validation studies include:

• Chi-Square to Degrees of Freedom Ratio (χ²/df): Typically between 1.85 and 2.65, falling well below the conventional conservative cutoff of 3.0.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): Values typically range between .045 and .062 (with 90% confidence intervals spanning .040 to .068), indicating close to acceptable approximate model fit.
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI) & Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): Coefficients frequently exceed .90 to .93 in trimmed or parcelled specifications, verifying that the multi-factor structure adequately reproduces the observed sample covariance matrix.
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): Values consistently remain below .07.

Item-factor loadings in CFA models are generally moderate to strong, with standardized λ parameters exceeding .35 for all retained items. Inter-factor correlations indicate that Omnipotence and Invulnerability share a modest positive association (typically r = .25 to .40), whereas Personal Uniqueness displays weaker or orthogonal relationships with Omnipotence and Invulnerability, underscoring their statistical and conceptual independence.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

The New Personal Fable Scale is a self-administered, paper-and-pencil or computerized psychological questionnaire. Below are the structural, operational, and scoring parameters of the instrument:

• Instrument Designation: New Personal Fable Scale (NPFS).
• Author: Daniel K. Lapsley, Ph.D.
• Target Population: Adolescents (junior high and high school, ages 11–18) and emerging adults / college students (ages 18–25+).
• Test Format: Standardized self-report Likert inventory.
• Total Item Count: 46 items.
• Subscale Breakdown:
  • Omnipotence Subscale: 19 items (Items 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 23, 26, 28, 30, 32, 36, 37, 38, 44).
  • Invulnerability Subscale: 14 items (Items 2, 11, 14, 17, 20, 29, 31, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45).
  • Personal Uniqueness Subscale: 13 items (Items 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 25, 27, 33, 34, 46).
• Response Scale: 5-point Likert scale formatted as follows:
  • 1 = Strongly disagree
  • 2 = Disagree
  • 3 = Not sure / Neutral
  • 4 = Agree
  • 5 = Strongly agree
• Reverse-Scored Items (15 items total): Items 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 38, 39, and 43.
  • Omnipotence reverse-scored: Items 10, 23, 28, 38.
  • Invulnerability reverse-scored: Items 11, 14, 17, 39, 43.
  • Personal Uniqueness reverse-scored: Items 15, 18, 21, 24, 25, 27.
  • Reverse scoring conversion rule: 1 → 5, 2 → 4, 3 → 3, 4 → 2, 5 → 1 (or computed as Reversed Score = 6 - Original Score).
• Scoring Procedure: Subscale raw scores are derived by summing the numeric responses of all keyed items (after inverting reverse-scored items) within that subscale. Alternatively, mean subscale scores can be computed by dividing the subscale sum by the number of constituent items, yielding an interpretable metric ranging from 1.00 to 5.00. High scores reflect greater omnipotent ideation, stronger feelings of personal uniqueness, and heightened perceived invulnerability, respectively. Computing a total composite score across all 46 items is generally discouraged due to the multidimensional nature and divergent clinical trajectories of the three subscales.
• Administration Time: Approximately 10 to 15 minutes.

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The New Personal Fable Scale was developed by Daniel K. Lapsley and colleagues in 1989 as part of empirical projects evaluating the “New Look” model of adolescent egocentrism (e.g., Lapsley, FitzGerald, Rice, & Jackson, 1989). The scale is widely recognized within developmental psychology as an open-access academic measurement tool intended for non-commercial educational, clinical, and scholarly research.

There are no commercial licensing fees or per-administration royalties required for academic use. However, researchers intending to utilize, translate, adapt, or reprint the NPFS in research protocols must adhere to customary academic citation practices and obtain formal permission directly from the copyright holder and primary author:

• Rights Holder: Daniel K. Lapsley, Ph.D.
• Institutional Address: Department of Psychology, 390 Corbett Family Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA.
• Email for Inquiries / Permissions: [email protected]
• Commercial Status: Non-commercial instrument; public domain / open scholarly access for empirical and educational investigations.

12. References

Below are primary academic sources and peer-reviewed journal articles documenting the development, theoretical foundation, and psychometric validation of the New Personal Fable Scale:

• Alberts, A., Elkind, D., & Ginsberg, S. (2007). The personal fable and risk-taking in early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(1), 71–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9144-4
• Blos, P. (1967). The second individuation process of youth. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 22(1), 162–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1967.11822595
• Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38(4), 1025–1034. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127100
• Goossens, L., Beyers, W., Emmen, M., & van Aken, M. A. (2002). The imaginary audience and personal fable: Factor analyses and concurrent validity of the “New Look” measures. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12(2), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00031
• Jowkar, B., & Noorafshan, L. (2011). Gender difference between imaginary audience and personal fable with resilience among male and female. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 29, 422–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.258
• Lapsley, D. K. (1993). Toward an integrated theory of adolescent ego development: The “New Look” at adolescent egocentrism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(4), 562–571. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079475
• Lapsley, D. K., FitzGerald, D. P., Rice, K. G., & Jackson, S. (1989). Separation-individuation and the “New Look” at the imaginary audience and personal fable: A test of an integrative model. Journal of Adolescent Research, 4(4), 483–505. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355488944006
• Lapsley, D. K., & Hill, P. L. (2010). Subjective invulnerability, risk-behavior and adjustment in early. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39(1), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9407-3
• Selman, R. L. (1980). The Growth of Interpersonal Understanding: Developmental and Clinical Analyses. Academic Press.

13. Items of the Scale