Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS)

Abstract

The Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS), developed by Rabia Dasti and Aisha Sitwat (2014), is an empirically derived, indigenous psychometric instrument constructed to assess the multifaceted nature of spirituality within an Islamic epistemological paradigm. Departing from Western Judeo-Christian conceptualizations of religiousness and intrinsic/extrinsic orientation, the MMS operationalizes spirituality through the classical Islamic model of the human soul (the dynamics of Nafs, Qalb, Aql, and Ruh), integrating behavioral discipline, interpersonal ethics, existential exploration, emotional regulation, and divine communion. The inventory comprises 75 self-report items organized into eight psychometrically validated dimensions: (1) Self-Discipline (SD; 12 items), (2) Quest and Search for Divinity (Q; 12 items), (3) Anger and Expansive Behavior (A & E; 9 items), (4) Self-Aggrandizement (SA; 10 items), (5) Feeling of Connectedness with Allah (FC; 12 items), (6) Meanness-Generosity (M-G; 9 items), (7) Tolerance-Intolerance (TI; 7 items), and (8) Islamic Practices (IP; 4 items). The instrument employs a five-point Likert response scale. Psychometric investigations across diverse adult and university samples in Pakistan demonstrate robust internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.68 to 0.84 across subscales) and temporal stability via test-retest coefficients ($r = 0.742$ to $0.956$). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirm an eight-factor latent structure that captures both inward spiritual states and external psychosocial manifestations. The MMS fills a crucial gap in cross-cultural psychology, clinical assessment, and psychiatric epidemiology by providing a culturally congruent tool to evaluate spiritual well-being, moral struggles, and therapeutic change in Muslim populations.

Keywords

Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality, MMS, Islamic psychology, psychometrics, spiritual assessment, Tazkiyah, Nafs, religious coping, cross-cultural measurement, Muslim mental health

Authors

The Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality was conceived, developed, and validated by:

• Rabia Dasti, Ph.D. — Centre for Clinical Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. Specializes in indigenous psychometrics, Islamic perspectives on psychotherapy, and spiritual dimensions of clinical practice. (Email: [email protected])
• Aisha Sitwat, Ph.D. — Centre for Clinical Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. Professor of Clinical Psychology with research expertise in cognitive behavior therapy adaptation, Islamic psychology, diagnostic instrumentation, and family dynamics. (Email: [email protected])

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS) is to provide an epistemologically congruent, psychometrically sound assessment of spirituality grounded within Islamic tradition. Historically, the psychology of religion has relied on instruments developed within Euro-American, Judeo-Christian frameworks, such as the Allport-Ross Religious Orientation Scale or the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire. When deployed in Muslim populations, these measures often fail to capture core doctrinal, interpersonal, and self-regulatory components indigenous to Islamic theology, reducing spirituality to institutional attendance, generic private prayer, or broad existential sentiments.

The MMS was developed to resolve these theoretical and methodological limitations. In Islamic thought, spirituality (frequently termed Ruhaniyyah or achieved via Tazkiyat al-Nafs—the purification of the self) is not an abstract, detached feeling, nor is it purely ritualistic. Instead, it constitutes a comprehensive state of being that links an individual’s internal cognitive-emotional processing, interpersonal conduct, moral rectitude, and experiential proximity to God (Allah). The MMS addresses the necessity for an instrument that measures both the transcendent dimension (direct connection with the Divine) and the horizontal dimension (ethical interpersonal interactions, absence of malice, and self-restraint).

In clinical, counseling, and psychiatric contexts, the MMS provides a diagnostic and therapeutic baseline. It helps mental health practitioners:

• Identify spiritual struggles, such as feelings of spiritual abandonment, persistent resentment, or inability to regulate impulses.
• Evaluate the psychological correlates of moral and egoic vulnerabilities (e.g., arrogance, narcissism, anger, and excessive materialism) that Islamic psychotherapy identifies as spiritual sicknesses of the heart (Amrad al-Qalb).
• Track therapeutic progress in culturally adapted interventions, including spiritually integrated cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), acceptance-based modalities, and traditional Islamic counseling frameworks.
• Examine the mediating and moderating roles of spiritual constructs in resilience, coping with trauma, depressive symptomatology, and generalized anxiety among Muslims worldwide.

Psychological Construct

The MMS conceptualizes Islamic spirituality as an eight-factor structural system reflecting cognitive, affective, behavioral, and relational domains. The eight dimensions are operationalized as follows:

1. Self-Discipline (SD)

Self-Discipline comprises 12 items assessing an individual’s capacity for sustained volition, self-regulation, goal commitment, and executive functioning, viewed through the lens of moral and daily accountability. In Islamic psychology, this maps directly onto Mujahadah (spiritual striving) and overcoming the impulses of Nafs al-Ammarah (the lower, commanding self). Items in this subscale capture difficulties in fulfilling promises, procrastination, sluggishness in taking initiative, and inconsistency. Low scores reflect poor self-regulation and spiritual-behavioral lethargy, whereas high scores denote high conscientiousness, discipline, and commitment to personal and moral duties.

2. Quest and Search for Divinity (Q)

The Quest dimension consists of 12 items evaluating an individual’s active, intentional striving to understand, know, and cultivate a relationship with the Creator. This reflects the existential drive for ultimate truth (Haqq) through contemplation of nature, solitary reflection (Khalwah), study of sacred texts (Qur’an) and prophetic traditions (Sunnah), consulting religious scholars, and communal spiritual gatherings. Rather than passive conformity, this factor assesses existential exploration, curiosity, and purposeful seeking of divine communion.

3. Anger and Expansive Behavior (A & E)

Comprising 9 items, this subscale captures difficulties in impulse control, dysregulated emotional reactivity, aggression, profanity, impulsive consumerism, gossiping, and vindictiveness. In Islamic moral philosophy, untamed anger (Ghadab) and unrestrained self-indulgence represent direct impairments to spiritual purity. The items measure the tendency to use swearing to discharge tension, buying unnecessary items to satisfy fleeting impulses, taking loans for luxury, and ridiculing others. High scores (post-reversal) indicate emotional restraint, patience (Sabr), and absence of destructive behavioral outbursts.

4. Self-Aggrandizement (SA)

This 10-item subscale targets ego-inflation, vanity, ostentation (Riya), pride (Kibr), and narcissistic reliance on material symbols of status. Items assess desires for excessive social prestige, material exhibitionism to prove personal importance, seeking praise, and using insincere flattery to manipulate others. Within the Islamic spiritual taxonomy, self-aggrandizement is among the most pernicious spiritual impediments. Higher scores (post-reversal) reflect humility (Tawadu), genuine self-effacement, and freedom from social approval addiction.

5. Feeling of Connectedness with Allah (FC)

Comprising 12 items, this factor evaluates the affective, experiential, and relational core of Islamic spirituality. It measures perceived closeness to God, awareness of divine surveillance and omnipresence (Muraqabah), feelings of divine love (Mahabbah), reverent awe/fear (Khawf), hope in divine forgiveness (Raja), and cognitive appraisal of adversity as a faith-strengthening mechanism. It represents the experiential core where theology becomes a stabilizing internal working model of divine attachment.

6. Meanness-Generosity (M-G)

This 9-item dimension assesses the horizontal, interpersonal manifestation of spirituality through altruism, familial support, empathy, and overcoming envy (Hasad). In Islamic ethics, true spirituality is inseparable from interpersonal conduct (Mu’amalat). Items measure the willingness to share knowledge, active support for impoverished relatives, altruistic joy in others’ prosperity, and living by the prophetic maxim of wanting for others what one wants for oneself. It contrasts self-centered covetousness with selfless generosity (Ithar).

7. Tolerance-Intolerance (TI)

Comprising 7 items, this subscale measures interpersonal forgiveness (Afw), emotional forbearance, and the absence of malice, vindictiveness, or relational avoidance. Items capture obsessive rumination over revenge, grudges, interpersonal rigidity when facing disagreements, and loss of self-control when provoked. High scores (post-reversal) reflect emotional maturity, peaceful conflict resolution, and the capacity to pardon others unconditionally.

8. Islamic Practices (IP)

The final dimension consists of 4 foundational items assessing compliance with mandatory and voluntary devotional rituals: performing ritual prayers (Namaz/Salah), reciting the Qur’an, engaging in divine remembrance (Zikr), and fasting (Sawm). These practices constitute the structural pillars that support spiritual self-discipline and experiential connection.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual foundation of the MMS is anchored in classical Islamic psychology, notably the scholarship of Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (specifically his magnum opus, Ihya Ulum al-Din [The Revival of the Religious Sciences]) and Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya, integrated with contemporary psychometric theory and self-regulation frameworks.

The Tripartite Model of the Soul

At the center of Islamic psychological anthropology is the dynamic, developmental journey of the human soul (Nafs). The soul is not viewed as a static entity, but as a fluid motivational system operating across three primary developmental stages:

1. Nafs al-Ammarah bi al-Su’ (The Commanding Soul): The unrefined, primitive state dominated by instinctual drives, egocentric urges, unchecked emotionality, anger, greed, and vanity. In the MMS, items in the Anger and Expansive Behavior and Self-Aggrandizement subscales operationalize the unrestrained influence of this stage.
2. Nafs al-Lawwamah (The Reproachful or Self-Accusing Soul): The conscientizing, self-reflective faculty (akin to an active moral conscience) that experiences guilt, recognizes shortcomings, wrestles with temptation, and actively strives for moral alignment. Subscales such as Self-Discipline and Tolerance-Intolerance capture this intrapsychic struggle to regulate the self against base inclinations.
3. Nafs al-Mutma’innah (The Soul at Rest and Tranquility): The mature, integrated spiritual state characterized by peace, complete trust in God (Tawakkul), pervasive love, emotional serenity, and genuine benevolence toward creation. This is measured directly by the Feeling of Connectedness with Allah and Meanness-Generosity subscales.

The Interplay of Qalb, Aql, and Ruh

Classical Islamic models view the heart (Qalb) as the metaphysical seat of cognition, intentionality, and spiritual perception, distinct from the physical organ. The intellect (Aql) serves as the rational faculty that discerns truth, analyzes reality, and governs behavior. The spirit (Ruh) represents the transcendent, divine spark blown into the human vessel that yearns for its Creator. When the Aql and Qalb fall under the control of the lower passions of the Nafs, psychological and spiritual pathology ensues (spiritual blindness, bitterness, vanity, and compulsive hostility). Conversely, when the Qalb is purified through spiritual practices (Ibadat), contemplation (Tafakkur), and moral restraint, it attains enlightenment and divine harmony. The MMS operationalizes this holism by treating prayer, interpersonal ethics, emotional control, and existential curiosity as interconnected facets of a single underlying construct.

Validity

The construct validity of the Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality has been established through content, convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validation studies.

Content and Face Validity

During scale construction, Dasti and Sitwat (2014) conducted qualitative phenomenological interviews with Islamic scholars, clinical psychologists, and individuals exhibiting recognized spiritual commitment. An initial item pool was evaluated by subject matter experts in Islamic theology and clinical psychology. Items were screened for clarity, cultural appropriateness, doctrinal precision, and psychometric viability, ensuring content validity across both theological and psychological standards.

Convergent and Concurrent Validity

The MMS exhibits significant convergent validity with established measures of religiousness, moral functioning, and mental health:

• Religious Measures: Subscales such as Islamic Practices, Feeling of Connectedness with Allah, and Quest correlate positively ($r = 0.50$ to $0.72$, $p < .001$) with the Psychological Measure of Islamic Religiousness (PMIR) developed by Abu-Raiya et al. (2008), the Religious of Islam Scale (RoIS; Jana-Masri & Priester, 2007), and the Sahin-Francis Scale of Attitude toward Islam (Francis et al., 2008).
• Psychological Well-Being: The Feeling of Connectedness with Allah, Meanness-Generosity, and Self-Discipline subscales demonstrate moderate to strong positive correlations ($r = 0.38$ to $0.56$, $p < .001$) with subjective well-being, life satisfaction (Satisfaction with Life Scale), and emotional resilience.
• Self-Esteem and Meaning: Significant positive associations have been observed with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Meaning in Life Questionnaire (presence subscale).

Discriminant and Criterion-Related Validity

The MMS differentiates between adaptive spiritual functioning and psychological distress:

• Depression, Anxiety, and Stress: Significant inverse relationships appear between adaptive MMS subscales (FC, SD, TI, M-G) and scores on the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), with correlations ranging from $r = -0.28$ to $-0.48$ ($p < .01$).
• Pathology and Egoism: The unreversed dimensions of Anger & Expansive Behavior and Self-Aggrandizement correlate positively with measures of pathological narcissism, interpersonal hostility, and neuroticism.
• Known-Groups Validity: Clinical samples diagnosed with major depressive disorder and substance use disorders scored significantly lower on Self-Discipline, Feeling of Connectedness with Allah, and Tolerance-Intolerance compared to matched non-clinical community controls ($t$-test comparisons yielding $p < .001$).

Reliability

The Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality demonstrates strong psychometric reliability across internal consistency and temporal stability metrics as reported by Dasti and Sitwat (2014):

Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha)

Internal consistency coefficients ($lpha$) for the 75 items grouped into their eight constituent subscales show adequate to high reliability:

• Self-Discipline (SD): $\alpha = 0.68$ (12 items)
• Quest and Search for Divinity (Q): $\alpha = 0.84$ (12 items)
• Anger and Expansive Behavior (A & E): $\alpha = 0.79$ (9 items)
• Self-Aggrandizement (SA): $\alpha = 0.79$ (10 items)
• Feeling of Connectedness with Allah (FC): $\alpha = 0.84$ (12 items)
• Meanness-Generosity (M-G): $\alpha = 0.74$ (9 items)
• Tolerance-Intolerance (TI): $\alpha = 0.76$ (7 items)
• Islamic Practices (IP): $\alpha = 0.71$ (4 items)

The total composite reliability for the overall instrument exceeds $\alpha = 0.88$, indicating that the scale reliably captures the broader domain of Islamic spirituality.

Temporal Stability (Test-Retest Reliability)

Test-retest reliability was evaluated over a three-to-four-week interval in a representative sub-sample. Pearson correlation coefficients ($r$) between testing sessions demonstrate substantial stability over time:

• Self-Discipline: $r = 0.886$ ($p < .001$)
• Quest and Search for Divinity: $r = 0.956$ ($p < .001$)
• Anger and Expansive Behavior: $r = 0.854$ ($p < .001$)
• Self-Aggrandizement: $r = 0.863$ ($p < .001$)
• Feeling of Connectedness with Allah: $r = 0.847$ ($p < .001$)
• Meanness-Generosity: $r = 0.808$ ($p < .001$)
• Tolerance-Intolerance: $r = 0.742$ ($p < .001$)
• Islamic Practices: $r = 0.793$ ($p < .001$)

These findings demonstrate that the MMS captures enduring spiritual dispositions rather than fleeting situational states, while retaining the sensitivity needed to detect longitudinal therapeutic or developmental changes.

Factor Analysis

The structural dimensionality of the MMS was examined through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) followed by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) across independent community and student samples.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

During initial scale development, a large item pool derived from theological literature reviews and qualitative interviews was subjected to principal axis factoring (PAF) with oblique (Promax) and orthogonal (Varimax) rotations. Examination of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy ($> 0.85$) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity ($p < .001$) confirmed data factorability.

Scree plot examination and eigenvalues ($> 1.5$) identified an eight-factor solution that accounted for over 48% of the total cumulative variance. Items exhibiting low factor loadings ($< 0.35$), high cross-loadings ($> 0.30$ across multiple factors), or conceptual incongruence were eliminated, producing the final 75-item structure. Salient item loadings ranged from 0.38 to 0.78 on their primary latent factors.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Subsequent confirmatory factor analyses on independent validation samples confirmed the eight-factor correlated structure. Goodness-of-fit indices demonstrated acceptable to close fit with empirical data:

• Relative Chi-Square ($\chi^2 / df$): Values fell between 1.82 and 2.41, below the conventional cut-off of 3.0.
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): Ranged between 0.90 and 0.93.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): Values ranged from 0.042 to 0.054 (90% CI [0.039, 0.058]), indicating low approximation error.
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): Maintained below 0.06.

Competing structural models (such as unidimensional, two-factor [ritual vs. affective], or orthogonal models) yielded poorer fit indices, confirming that Islamic spirituality operates as an integrated system of distinct yet correlated cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and relational dimensions.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Name: Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS)
• Authors: Rabia Dasti, Ph.D., and Aisha Sitwat, Ph.D. (2014)
• Instrument Type: Standardized self-report multidimensional psychometric rating scale
• Item Count: 75 items
• Administration Format: Individual or group administration; paper-and-pencil or secure computer-based testing
• Completion Time: Approximately 20 to 30 minutes
• Response Format: 5-point Likert scale (typically anchored from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree, or Never to Always depending on administration context)
• Subscales & Item Mapping:
  • Self-Discipline (SD): Items 1 through 12 (12 items)
  • Quest and Search for Divinity (Q): Items 13 through 24 (12 items)
  • Anger and Expansive Behavior (A & E): Items 25 through 33 (9 items)
  • Self-Aggrandizement (SA): Items 34 through 43 (10 items)
  • Feeling of Connectedness with Allah (FC): Items 44 through 55 (12 items)
  • Meanness-Generosity (M-G): Items 56 through 64 (9 items)
  • Tolerance-Intolerance (TI): Items 65 through 71 (7 items)
  • Islamic Practices (IP): Items 72 through 75 (4 items)
• Scoring and Reverse Coding Instructions:
  • Items marked with an asterisk (*) represent negative or spiritually maladaptive behaviors, cognitive distortions, or egoic vices and must be reverse scored prior to subscale computation (e.g., $1 o 5$, $2 o 4$, $3 o 3$, $4 o 2$, $5 o 1$).
  • Items requiring reverse scoring: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (all SD items); 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 (all A & E items); 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43 (all SA items); 58, 59, 61, 64 (from M-G); 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71 (from TI).
  • Subscale scores are calculated by summing the (reverse-coded where applicable) item ratings within each domain, or by computing mean item scores per factor.
  • A total global composite spirituality score can be computed by summing all eight dimensions; higher total scores signify higher spiritual maturity, disciplined living, emotional regulation, and relational proximity to God.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS) was formally published in 2014 in the Journal of Muslim Mental Health (Volume 8, Issue 2, pp. 47–67). The instrument was developed at the Centre for Clinical Psychology, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.

The authors provide the scale for academic research, educational use, and non-commercial clinical assessment. Researchers and mental health clinicians wishing to employ the MMS in empirical investigations, clinical audits, or cross-cultural translations are encouraged to contact the primary authors directly via email ([email protected]; [email protected]) to obtain formal permission and discuss scoring protocols or Urdu/English parallel versions. Commercial use, reproduction in for-profit diagnostic testing packages, or unrestricted digital re-distribution without attribution is strictly prohibited under standard copyright conventions.

References

• Abu-Raiya, H. (2008). A psychological measure of Islamic religiousness: Evidence for relevance, reliability and validity. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 18(4), 291–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508610802229270
• Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., Stein, C., & Mahoney, A. (2007). Lessons learned and challenges faced in developing the psychological measure of Islamic religiousness. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 2(2), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900701624444
• Dasti, R., & Sitwat, A. (2014). Multidimensional Measure of Islamic Spirituality (MMS). Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 8(2), 47–67. https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.0137.202
• Francis, L. J., Sahin, A., & Al-Failakawi, F. (2008). Psychometric properties of two Islamic measures among young adults in Kuwait: The Sahin-Francis Scale of Attitude toward Islam and the Sahin Index of Islamic Moral Values. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 3(1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900802035201
• Ghorbani, N., Watson, P. J., & Khan, Z. H. (2007). Theoretical, empirical, and potential ideological dimensions of using Western conceptualizations to measure Muslim religious commitments. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 2(2), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900701611318
• Jana-Masri, A., & Priester, P. E. (2007). The development and validation of a Qur’an-based instrument to assess Islamic religiosity: The Religiosity of Islam Scale. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 2(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564900701624469
• Salleh, H. M. Hatta, S. M., Nor, I. M., Shamsuddin, K., Kassim, K., & Ismail, R. (2000). Hatta Islamic Religiosity Scale 1996 (HIRS96): A reliability and validity study. Malaysian Journal of Psychiatry, 8(1), 5–14.

Items of the Scale