Modern Homonegativity Scale

1. Abstract

The Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS) is a psychometrically validated self-report instrument engineered by Melanie A. Morrison and Todd G. Morrison in 2002 to assess contemporary, subtle prejudice against gay men and lesbian women. Unlike legacy instruments designed to capture “old-fashioned” homophobia or moral, religious, and pathologizing hostility, the MHS assesses beliefs that sexual minorities make illegitimate demands for social transformation, that anti-gay discrimination is a relic of the past, and that sexual minorities self-marginalize by emphasizing their sexual identity. The instrument exists as two parallel, unidimensional 12-item versions: the Modern Homonegativity Scale–Gay (MHS-G) and the Modern Homonegativity Scale–Lesbian (MHS-L). Items are typically administered using a 5-point Likert response format ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), although 7-point variants have also demonstrated robust metric parity. Total scale scores range from 12 to 60 (or 12 to 84 on a 7-point metric), with three reverse-scored items per form. Internal consistency estimates across undergraduate, community, and cross-national populations demonstrate high reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values ranging between .81 and .95 for the MHS-G and between .84 and .91 for the MHS-L. Factor analyses support a single-factor construct per target that is distinct from traditional homonegativity, modern racism, and neosexism. The MHS demonstrates convergent, discriminant, and predictive behavioral validity, significantly correlating with social distance preferences, opposition to gay political candidates, and related ideological constructs while remaining resistant to social desirability bias.

2. Keywords

Modern Homonegativity Scale, MHS, sexual prejudice, modern homonegativity, homophobia measurement, attitude assessment, psychometrics, MHS-G, MHS-L, subtle prejudice, intergroup attitudes

3. Authors

The Modern Homonegativity Scale was developed and validated by:

• Melanie A. Morrison, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Primary research areas include social psychology, prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, and the psychometric measurement of modern biases. Email: [email protected].
• Todd G. Morrison, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Specializes in social psychometrics, body image, human sexuality, and intergroup hostility.

Institutional Address: Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, 9 Campus Drive, 184 Arts Building, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5A5, Canada.

4. Purpose

The development of the Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS) was initiated to resolve a measurement challenge within social psychology and sexuality research. Throughout the late twentieth century, public attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women underwent shifts across Western democracies. Standard instruments—such as the Index of Homophobia (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Men Scale (ATLG; Herek, 1988), and the Homonegativity Scale (Morrison et al., 1999)—predominantly measured “old-fashioned” or traditional homonegativity. These legacy tools focused on overt moral condemnation, associations with sin or psychopathology, beliefs that homosexuality threatens traditional family values, or overt visceral revulsion. As sociocultural shifts, legislative advancements, and social norms made explicit hostility less acceptable, scores on traditional measures began exhibiting marked ceiling and floor effects, diminished variance, and heightened susceptibility to social desirability bias.

Drawing theoretical inspiration from conceptualizations of modern racism (McConahay, 1986) and modern sexism (Swim et al., 1995), Morrison and Morrison (2002) developed the MHS to capture an updated, abstract, and egalitarian-couched form of prejudice. The purpose of the MHS is to quantify negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women that are rationalized through contemporary socio-political discourse rather than overt theological condemnation. The scale specifically evaluates cognitive resistance rooted in three underlying beliefs: (a) that legal equity has been fully achieved and discrimination is no longer an issue; (b) that sexual minorities make excessive, illegitimate, or aggressive demands that disrupt the status quo; and (c) that gay men and lesbian women place disproportionate public emphasis on their sexual orientation, thereby manufacturing their own societal marginalization.

The MHS serves vital functions across basic and applied empirical research. In social and political psychology, it is widely utilized to examine ideological correlates of anti-LGBTQ+ sentiment, such as Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO). In educational settings, the scale is deployed to evaluate the efficacy of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) interventions, anti-bias workshops, and university curricula. In organizational and public policy contexts, researchers employ the MHS to investigate systemic bias, workplace microaggressions, attitudes toward non-discrimination legislation, same-sex marriage adoption rights, and the evaluation of political candidates who openly identify as sexual minorities.

5. Psychological Construct

The construct measured by the instrument is modern homonegativity. Morrison and Morrison (2002) defined this construct as a multidimensional set of contemporary negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women characterized by the rejection of traditional bigotry alongside the simultaneous endorsement of beliefs that minimize ongoing discrimination and oppose egalitarian progress.

While the overall scale is psychometrically unidimensional, the content domain of modern homonegativity is derived from three primary conceptual pillars:

1. Denial of Continuing Discrimination

This component reflects the conviction that institutional and interpersonal prejudice against gay men and lesbian women is a solved historical problem. Endorsers believe that contemporary Western societies afford absolute legal parity and equal opportunity to sexual minorities. Consequently, any ongoing protests, legal challenges, or human rights campaigns are framed as unnecessary or unwarranted. Exemplifying this facet are items asserting that gay men or lesbians “have all the rights they need” and “no longer need to protest for equal rights.” This denial allows individuals to maintain a self-image of fairness while actively opposing civil rights advocacy.

2. Resentment of Perceived Illegitimate Demands and Special Privileges

This dimension encompasses feelings of resentment toward the civil rights efforts of sexual minorities, framing such activism as aggressive, unfair, or disruptive to broader social harmony. Rather than recognizing these efforts as quests for basic human rights, respondents who score high on modern homonegativity perceive them as attempts to extract “special rights and privileges” at the expense of heterosexual citizens. This is operationalized via statements such as “Gay men have become far too confrontational in their demand for equal rights” and objections to the allocation of public funds (“In today’s tough economic times, Canadians’ tax dollars shouldn’t be used to support gay men’s organizations”).

3. Blame for Self-Marginalization and Resistance to Cultural Visibility

The third conceptual pillar posits that sexual minorities are responsible for their own societal marginalization through public expressions of their culture and identity. Proponents of this view argue that if gay men and lesbian women desire genuine social integration and equal treatment, they must assimilate completely into heteronormative paradigms and keep their sexual identities private. Public cultural displays—such as Pride parades or university-level gay and lesbian academic studies—are viewed as provocative or divisive. Scale items reflecting this facet include: “Gay men seem to focus on the ways in which they differ from heterosexuals, and ignore the ways in which they are similar” and assertions that events like “Gay Pride Day” are ridiculous because an individual’s private sexual orientation should not constitute an issue of public pride.

The MHS operationalizes modern homonegativity toward gay men (MHS-G) and lesbian women (MHS-L) through two parallel instruments. This division is theoretically essential: although the ideological mechanisms are parallel, attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women can manifest with varying intensities due to gender-role expectations and different forms of cultural stereotyping.

6. Theoretical Framework

The Modern Homonegativity Scale is grounded within the broader social psychological literature on modern and symbolic prejudice. Its primary foundational architecture builds directly upon the Theory of Symbolic Racism developed by David O. Sears and John B. McConahay (McConahay, 1986), as well as the Modern Sexism Framework formulated by Janet Swim and colleagues (Swim et al., 1995).

The Evolution from Old-Fashioned to Modern Prejudice

Historically, social psychological paradigms conceptualized intergroup bias as overt, hostile, and blunt antipathy. In the context of sexual prejudice (Herek, 2000), “old-fashioned” homonegativity relied upon traditional religious fundamentalism, moral depravity narratives, beliefs in biological pathology, and explicit assertions that homosexual behavior should be criminalized or medically treated. However, as public condemnation of blatant bigotry intensified over the late 20th century, individuals experienced a normative shift. Social norms increasingly dictated egalitarian outward presentations.

According to modern prejudice frameworks, underlying hostility did not disappear; rather, it transformed into more subtle, cognitively rationalized expressions. When individuals encounter minority groups demanding sociopolitical parity, negative affect is triggered. However, because modern individuals often reject overt hatred to preserve an egalitarian self-concept, this negative affect is expressed through abstract socio-political and economic beliefs. Hostility is framed as an objective critique of the minority group’s tactics, timeline, or perceived cultural demands rather than direct animosity toward the group itself.

Social Identity and System Justification Interfaces

The theoretical framework of modern homonegativity also intersects with Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and System Justification Theory (Jost & Banaji, 1994). Hegemonic social structures historically privileged heteronormativity. When sexual minority groups mobilize for institutional changes—such as legal marriage equality, joint adoption rights, and anti-discrimination protections—dominant heterosexual group members perceive a threat to both their relative social status and the stability of institutional norms. System Justification Theory illustrates how individuals scoring high on modern homonegativity employ cognitive rationalizations (e.g., claiming equality has already been achieved) to preserve the status quo without acknowledging structural inequalities.

7. Validity

The construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the Modern Homonegativity Scale has been confirmed across diverse cross-cultural cohorts, including Canadian, American, Irish, and British university and community samples.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Construct validation was systematically demonstrated by Morrison and Morrison (2002) and replicated across subsequent studies (Morrison et al., 2005, 2008, 2009). The MHS demonstrates statistically significant, theoretically aligned correlations with several socio-cognitive and ideological constructs:

• Modern and Old-Fashioned Racism: MHS-G and MHS-L scores correlate positively with modern racism (r values typically ranging between .35 and .55) and symbolic racism scales, demonstrating that modern prejudice operates across multiple targeted outgroups.
• Neosexism and Modern Sexism: Robust positive correlations (r = .40 to .60) are observed between the MHS and modern sexism measures, reflecting shared resistance to social transformation in gender and sexual hierarchies.
• Right-Wing Ideology and Authoritarianism: Substantial positive associations exist between modern homonegativity, perceived political conservatism, religious fundamentalism, and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) (Morrison et al., 2005).
• Humanitarian-Egalitarianism: The MHS correlates negatively with general humanitarian-egalitarian value orientations, illustrating that individuals who prioritize systemic equality reject modern homonegative assertions.
• Intergroup Contact: In alignment with Gordon Allport’s Intergroup Contact Theory, self-reported quality and quantity of interpersonal contact with sexual minorities negatively correlate with MHS scores.

Discriminant Validity

A critical psychometric objective in developing the MHS was ensuring its empirical distinctiveness from traditional homonegativity scales (such as the Homonegativity Scale; Morrison et al., 1999) and from general social desirability response sets. Confirmatory factor analytic investigations comparing single-factor models (collapsing old-fashioned and modern items into a unitary dimension) with two-factor models consistently show superior fit for the two-factor solution (Morrison et al., 2009). Furthermore, evaluations using the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale indicated that MHS responses are free from significant social desirability contamination (r values typically failing to reach statistical significance, |r| < .12), establishing that the MHS captures actual underlying attitudes rather than impression-management artifacts.

Predictive and Behavioral Validity

Predictive behavioral validity has been verified through experimental and observational designs. In lab-based behavioral studies (Morrison & Morrison, 2002, 2009), participants completing the MHS were monitored during behavioral-choice tasks. Individuals scoring high on the MHS exhibited significantly greater physical social distancing when seating themselves near an openly gay or lesbian confederate compared to low-scoring counterparts. Additionally, in simulated political election paradigms, high MHS scores significantly predicted lower willingness to vote for or endorse qualified political candidates who were openly gay, even after controlling for traditional homonegativity and general political party preference.

8. Reliability

The Modern Homonegativity Scale exhibits high internal consistency across both student and general adult community samples.

Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha)

Across validation studies conducted by Melanie Morrison, Todd Morrison, and independent international research groups, the MHS-G and MHS-L forms have repeatedly demonstrated strong internal consistency:

• MHS-G (Gay Men Target): Initial scale validation cohorts yielded Cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeding .90 (Morrison & Morrison, 2002). Subsequent cross-national investigations across Canadian and American samples (Morrison et al., 2009) documented alphas consistently spanning from .81 to .95. In Irish university cohorts (Morrison et al., 2005), alpha coefficients stabilized between .87 and .92.
• MHS-L (Lesbian Women Target): The parallel lesbian version similarly demonstrates strong internal reliability, with alpha coefficients regularly spanning from .84 to .91 across student and nonstudent community populations.

Item-total correlations across both forms typically fall well above the recommended psychometric threshold of .40, with the majority of individual item loadings spanning between .55 and .80.

Test-Retest Stability

Longitudinal stability checks conducted across 4- to 8-week intervals demonstrate acceptable test-retest reliability, with temporal stability coefficients typically exceeding r = .82, indicating that modern homonegativity operates as a relatively stable sociopolitical attitude over time in the absence of targeted intergroup interventions.

9. Factor Analysis

The factorial architecture of the Modern Homonegativity Scale was developed using systematic item reduction and factor analytic methodologies.

Initial Scale Construction and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

The scale development began with an initial pool of 50 candidate items derived from structured focus groups, academic faculty input, sexual minority advocacy organizations, and undergraduate and graduate cohorts. This 50-item pool was administered to collegiate samples. Psychometric reduction criteria—including elimination of items with extreme skewness, low item-to-total correlations (< .40), or high conceptual overlap—reduced the pool to a 12-item single-factor structure per target group (MHS-G and MHS-L).

Exploratory factor analyses using principal components analysis (PCA) and common factor analysis with scree plot evaluations extracted a single primary factor accounting for substantial total variance across the item set (typically exceeding 45% to 55% of common variance). Factor loadings for all 12 items uniformly exceeded the standard cut-off of .40, with the majority clustering between .55 and .82.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Cross-National Invariance

Structural equation modeling and CFA conducted by Morrison, Morrison, and Franklin (2009) evaluated the dimensional integrity and cross-cultural measurement invariance across university students in Canada (N = 328) and the United States (N = 295). CFA supported the hypothesized unidimensional model for both targets, demonstrating good fit:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI) > .92
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) > .90
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) ≤ .065
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) ≤ .055

Importantly, multi-group confirmatory factor analyses assessed measurement invariance between Canadian and American cohorts. This identified a robust set of invariant items across nations: 8 items for the MHS-G and 10 items for the MHS-L met the strict criteria for metric and scalar invariance. When cross-national comparisons between the United States and Canada are prioritized, authors recommend utilizing these invariant sub-cores, calculated as standardized means (total MHS-G score divided by 8; total MHS-L score divided by 10).

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Name: Modern Homonegativity Scale (MHS)
• Target Variants: Two parallel forms:
  • Modern Homonegativity Scale–Gay (MHS-G)
  • Modern Homonegativity Scale–Lesbian (MHS-L)
• Instrument Type: Self-report psychometric rating scale
• Administration Format: Paper-and-pencil, computer-assisted, or online web-based assessment
• Total Item Count: 12 items per target form (24 items total if both forms are administered simultaneously)
• Completion Time: Approximately 3 to 5 minutes per form
• Response Scale: 5-point Likert response format:
  • 1 = Strongly Disagree
  • 2 = Disagree
  • 3 = Don’t Know
  • 4 = Agree
  • 5 = Strongly Agree

  (Note: A 7-point Likert variant ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree has also been used in published literature without altering psychometric properties.)

• Scoring and Factor Structure:
  • Both forms are psychometrically unidimensional; no subscale or factor subscores are calculated.
  • Reverse Scored Items: Item 5 on the MHS-G (“Gay men who are ‘out of the closet’ should be admired for their courage”) and Item 7 on the MHS-L (“Lesbian women who are ‘out of the closet’ should be admired for their courage”) require reverse scoring before summing: 1 → 5, 2 → 4, 3 → 3, 4 → 2, 5 → 1.
  • Total Score Calculation: Calculated by summing all 12 items on the respective scale following item reversal.
  • Possible Score Range: 12 to 60 (on a 5-point format) or 12 to 84 (on a 7-point format). Higher composite scores indicate greater levels of modern homonegativity.
  • Cross-National Invariance Scoring: For cross-national comparisons using invariant items only, divide the summed invariant MHS-G items (8 items) by 8, and the summed invariant MHS-L items (10 items) by 10.

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Modern Homonegativity Scale was first published in 2002 by Melanie A. Morrison and Todd G. Morrison. In alignment with the authors’ commitment to academic research and scientific dissemination, the MHS is an open-access psychometric instrument. The authors have explicitly indicated that the scale is freely available for use by any qualified researcher or clinician operating in accordance with the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. No licensing fees or formal permissions are required to utilize, reproduce, or administer the items for empirical research purposes, provided that appropriate scholarly attribution and citation are maintained.

12. References

• Herek, G. M. (1988). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men: Correlates and gender differences. The Journal of Sex Research, 25(4), 451–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224498809551476
• Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(1), 19–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00051
• Hudson, W. W., & Ricketts, W. A. (1980). A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5(4), 357–372. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v05n04_02
• Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x
• McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism (pp. 91–125). Academic Press.
• Morrison, M. A., & Morrison, T. G. (2002). Development and validation of a scale measuring modern prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2), 15–37. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v43n02_02
• Morrison, M. A., & Morrison, T. G. (2009). Sexual orientation bias toward gay men and lesbian women: Modern homonegative attitudes and their association with discriminatory behavioural intentions. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan.
• Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Franklin, R. (2009). Modern and old-fashioned homonegativity among samples of Canadian and American university students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 40(4), 523–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022109335186
• Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., Harriman, R. L., & Jewell, L. M. (2008). Old-fashioned and modern prejudice toward Aboriginals in Canada. In M. A. Morrison & T. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Psychology of Modern Prejudice (pp. 277–306). Nova Science Publishers.
• Morrison, T. G., Kenny, P., & Harrington, A. (2005). Modern prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women: Assessing the viability of a measure of modern homonegative attitudes within an Irish context. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 131(3), 219–250. https://doi.org/10.3200/MONO.131.3.219-250
• Morrison, T. G., Parriag, A. V., & Morrison, M. A. (1999). The psychometric properties of the Homonegativity Scale. Journal of Homosexuality, 37(4), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v37n04_07
• Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.199
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)