Dementia Rating Scale (DRS) – Sample

1. Abstract

The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (DRS), originally introduced by clinical neuropsychologist Dr. Steven Mattis in 1973 and formally published in 1976, is an internationally recognized, clinician-administered neurocognitive battery designed to assess the presence, profile, and longitudinal progression of cognitive impairment in geriatric populations and individuals with suspected or confirmed neurodegenerative disorders. The battery comprises 36 distinct behavioral tasks structured across five primary cognitive subscales: Attention (maximum score: 37), Initiation and Perseveration (maximum score: 37), Construction (maximum score: 6), Conceptualization (maximum score: 39), and Memory (maximum score: 25), yielding an aggregate global score ranging from 0 to 144 points. Administered via an adaptive, hierarchical discontinue design wherein credit for simpler introductory items is awarded if the patient passes an initial complex baseline screen, the instrument maximizes clinical diagnostic efficiency while drastically reducing patient fatigue—a crucial factor in advanced neurocognitive testing. Extensive psychometric investigations over five decades have demonstrated exceptional reliability, with internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) ranging from .90 to .95 for the overall scale and test-retest reliability estimates spanning .89 to .97 across clinical and community-dwelling samples. Construct, concurrent, and predictive validity analyses consistently demonstrate robust discriminatory capability in differentiating normal cognitive aging from mild neurocognitive disorder, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), and vascular dementia. This article delivers a rigorous, exhaustive psychometric and clinical review of the Dementia Rating Scale, elucidating its theoretical lineage, factorial integrity, diagnostic utility, cross-cultural normative adjustments, and contemporary status in clinical neuropsychology.

2. Keywords

Mattis Dementia Rating Scale, DRS, DRS-2, neurocognitive assessment, Alzheimer’s disease, cognitive impairment, neuropsychological battery, neurodegenerative disorders, psychometrics, geriatric psychiatry

3. Authors

The Dementia Rating Scale was conceptualized, developed, and standardized by Steven Mattis, Ph.D., ABPP, an eminent American clinical neuropsychologist whose pioneering contributions helped establish standard behavioral protocols for organic mental disorders. Dr. Mattis developed the instrument during his tenure at the Montefiore Medical Center and the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx, New York, with subsequent refinements carried out in collaboration with the New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center (now NewYork-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center). Dr. Mattis sought to overcome the severe floor effects observed in existing psychometric batteries when evaluating moderately to severely impaired geriatric patients exhibiting organic brain syndromes.

Subsequent psychometric expansions, comprehensive normative stratifications, and computerized profiling systems—most notably culminating in the Dementia Rating Scale-2 (DRS-2) and the DRS-2 Alternate Form—were spearheaded by neuropsychologists across premier academic medical institutions. Key contributors to the normative foundation and structural validation include Glenn E. Smith, Ph.D., ABPP, Robert J. Ivnik, Ph.D., and James F. Malec, Ph.D. from the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine (Mayo’s Older Americans Normative Studies [MOANS] and Mayo’s Older African American Normative Studies [MOAANS]); Andreas U. Monsch, Ph.D., Mark W. Bondi, Ph.D., and David P. Salmon, Ph.D. from the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center; and Paul J. Jurica, Ph.D., Christopher L. Leitten, Ph.D., and Steven Mattis through the test’s official publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources (PAR).

4. Purpose

The primary clinical and scientific purpose of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale is to provide an objective, standardized, and quantitatively sensitive measurement of cognitive decline in individuals experiencing organic neurodegenerative processes. Developed at a time when conventional intelligence tests—such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)—proved excessively taxing, overly lengthy, and plagued by severe floor effects for individuals suffering from significant cortical or subcortical deterioration, the DRS was engineered to address the critical psychometric gap between coarse bedside screening examinations (e.g., the Mini-Mental State Examination [MMSE]) and exhaustive, multi-hour neuropsychological test batteries.

Clinically, the instrument serves multiple interrelated objectives:

• Differential Diagnosis: Delineating neurocognitive symptom profiles characteristic of cortical neurodegenerative etiologies (such as primary amnestic Alzheimer’s disease) versus subcortical etiologies (such as Parkinson’s disease dementia, progressive supranuclear palsy, and Huntington’s disease). For instance, patients with subcortical pathology typically exhibit disproportionate impairment on the Initiation and Perseveration subscale alongside relatively preserved verbal recognition memory, whereas patients presenting with Alzheimer’s disease exhibit profound breakdown on the Memory subscale with hallmark rapid forgetting.
• Staging Cognitive Severity: Accurately mapping an individual’s cognitive functioning across the spectrum of impairment, from questionable/mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to moderate and severe dementia, without encountering premature floor effects.
• Longitudinal Disease Monitoring: Tracking rates of longitudinal cognitive deterioration, natural history disease progression, and therapeutic responses to pharmacological interventions (such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, NMDA receptor antagonists, and emerging amyloid-targeting monoclonal antibodies) or non-pharmacological neurorehabilitation strategies.
• Competency and Functional Capacity Determinations: Providing empirical cognitive data to inform clinical judgments regarding independent living abilities, medical decision-making capacity, financial competency, and institutional care placement.

The overarching theoretical rationale of the DRS rests on the premise that neurodegenerative diseases do not degrade cognitive faculties uniformly. Rather, discrete neuroanatomical networks undergo differential vulnerability and progressive degradation. By sampling five vital neurobehavioral domains within a unified metric, the DRS produces both an overall global index of organic cognitive impairment and a granular subscale profile that mirrors the structural and functional integrity of distributed frontal, temporal, parietal, and subcortical neural circuits.

5. Psychological Construct

The Dementia Rating Scale operationalizes global cognitive functioning as a multidimensional construct mediated by interrelated yet dissociable neurocognitive systems. Rather than viewing dementia as an undifferentiated, global reduction in intellectual quotient, the scale decomposes cognitive competence into five foundational dimensions:

I. Attention (37 Maximum Points)

The Attention subscale measures foundational attentional capacity, sensory registration, visual scanning, mental tracking, and the executive control of focus. It evaluates both basic auditory-verbal span and complex directed attention. Specific cognitive operations include repeating forward and backward digit sequences (digit span), which evaluates basic acoustic-phonetic working memory maintenance and mental manipulation; executing single and successive multi-step verbal commands; executing simple motor imitations; performing visual cancellation tasks requiring visual scanning and target number identification (e.g., counting letters embedded in matrices and scrambled arrays); and reading word lists aloud. Deficits in this domain reflect disruptions in reticular activating, thalamic, and frontoparietal attentional networks.

II. Initiation and Perseveration (37 Maximum Points)

This subscale evaluates executive behavioral activation, self-directed mental search strategies, dynamic motor programming, and the capacity to inhibit inappropriate, perseverative, or stereotypic responses. The domain draws heavily upon prefrontal-striatal circuits. Key behavioral paradigms include:

• Complex and Simple Verbal Fluency: Generative semantic naming under timed constraints (e.g., rapidly naming supermarket items or articles of clothing within specified intervals), requiring spontaneous semantic retrieval and executive search.
• Phonemic/Vocal Alternation: Rapidly articulating challenging syllable sequences (e.g., repeating “Bee, Key, Gee” or “Boh, Bah, Bee” across multiple consecutive cycles) to assess speech praxis, articulatory coordination, and motor-verbal perseveration.
• Bimanual Motor Programming: Executing double alternating movements (such as simultaneous alternating palm-up/palm-down postures or clenched-fist/extended-palm sequences across five repetitions) and alternate finger tapping.
• Graphomotor Kinetic Melodies: Continuous visual-motor reproduction of alternating geometric patterns (e.g., drawing ramparts with alternating square and semicircular waves, or alternating crosses and semicircles) without perseverating on an isolated component shape.

III. Construction (6 Maximum Points)

The Construction subscale measures visuospatial perception, visuomotor coordination, spatial orientation, and visual-constructive praxis. Patients are required to manually copy a hierarchy of geometric stimuli using pencil and paper, ranging from basic horizontal lines and discrete geometric figures (circles, triangles) to complex spatial intersections (such as reproducing a circle accurately nested inside a triangle) and signing their own recognizable name. Impairments on this subscale reveal structural or functional damage within the non-dominant parietal lobe and parieto-occipital pathways.

IV. Conceptualization (39 Maximum Points)

The Conceptualization subscale assesses abstract reasoning, inductive and deductive problem-solving, semantic categorization, and the apprehension of abstract relationships. It samples higher-order cognitive processing across multiple modalities:

• Abstract Verbal Similarities: Articulating categorical commonalities uniting word pairs (e.g., explaining how an apple and a banana are alike).
• Primary Inductive Reasoning: Spontaneously generating exemplary members of a designated categorical superordinate class (e.g., generating items that people eat).
• Verbal Odd-One-Out (Differences): Identifying an incongruent item from an acoustic or semantic series (e.g., determining which item does not belong among “dog, cat, car”).
• Multiple-Choice Conceptualization: Selecting abstract relational categories from structured visual or verbal arrays when spontaneous generation fails.
• Identities and Oddities: Analyzing abstract pictorial stimuli to determine which two visual geometric patterns are identical and which pattern represents a distinct, anomalous visual departure.

V. Memory (25 Maximum Points)

The Memory subscale assesses episodic encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval across both verbal and visual modalities, alongside general autopsychic, spatial, and temporal orientation. Subtests include standard temporal and spatial orientation questions (assessing awareness of current day, date, month, year, geographical location, and situational context); immediate and delayed recall of oral sentences; spontaneous recall of self-generated sentences (e.g., recalling a sentence the examinee previously constructed using designated words); and two-alternative forced-choice visual and verbal recognition paradigms. Because true primary cortical amnestic syndromes—such as Alzheimer’s pathology—disrupt hippocampal and entorhinal consolidation, affected patients show catastrophic loss of stored information that cannot be rescued even by forced-choice recognition formats.

6. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical architecture of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale is grounded in classical behavioral neurology, neuropsychology, and hierarchical systems theories of cortical organization, synthesized notably from the conceptual models of Alexander Luria (1902–1977) and Norman Geschwind (1926–1984).

Lurian Functional Systems and Brain Organization

The DRS operationalizes Alexander Luria’s tripartite model of the functional human brain:

1. Unit I: Regulation of Tone, Cortical Arousal, and Vigilance: Located in the brainstem reticular formation and limbic networks. This foundational level is indexed within the DRS by the Attention subscale, reflecting an examinee’s ability to remain alert, register stimuli, and sustain conscious behavioral focus.
2. Unit II: Obtaining, Processing, and Storing Information: Encompassing the lateral cortical regions of the posterior hemispheres (occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes). This receptive and gnosis-driven functional block is directly captured across the DRS by the Construction (visuoparietal praxis), Conceptualization (semantic networks), and Memory (temporo-limbic storage) subscales.
3. Unit III: Programming, Regulating, and Verifying Mental Activity: Centered within the prefrontal lobes and their reciprocal frontostriatal connections. This executive control apparatus is explicitly captured by the Initiation and Perseveration subscale, alongside complex inductive reasoning components within Conceptualization. Deficits here demonstrate environmental dependency, motor/verbal perseveration, loss of mental flexibility, and inability to suppress default motor plans.

The Hierarchical Adaptive Testing Model

A central theoretical premise of the DRS is its distinctive hierarchical testing algorithm, rooted in psychophysical threshold measurement. Dr. Mattis recognized that requiring a cognitively intact or mildly impaired elder to complete dozens of rudimentary sensorimotor tasks is unnecessarily time-consuming, infantilizing, and fatiguing. Conversely, forcing severely demented individuals to repeatedly fail complex executive or memory challenges generates catastrophic emotional reactions and testing frustration.

To resolve this, the DRS implements a branch-skip paradigm: for several subscales, the most cognitively complex task in the hierarchy is presented first. If an examinee demonstrates flawless mastery on this benchmark item, full credit is automatically awarded for all lower-level, subordinate items within that functional branch, and testing immediately advances to the next cognitive domain. If, however, the examinee makes an error on the primary task, the clinician administers the remaining, progressively simpler items in that section. This elegant design simultaneously satisfies two divergent psychometric imperatives: eliminating floor effects in advanced dementia while preserving an abbreviated administration timeframe (typically 15 to 35 minutes) for high-functioning patients.

7. Validity

Over five decades of empirical investigation, the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale has accumulated extensive validity evidence spanning construct, criterion-related, concurrent, convergent, and discriminant domains.

Construct and Structural Validity

Construct validity is evidenced by the scale’s sensitivity to neuroanatomical atrophy and neuropathological staging. In post-mortem clinicopathological correlation studies and structural neuroimaging investigations (magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] volumetric and voxel-based morphometry analyses), DRS total and subscale scores correlate significantly with cerebral cortical thinning, ventricular enlargement, and medial temporal lobe atrophy. Specifically, performance on the Memory subscale exhibits significant negative correlations with hippocampal and entorhinal cortex atrophy, while performance on the Initiation and Perseveration subscale correlates with prefrontal cortical volume reduction and microstructural white matter tract disruption measured via diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).

Concurrent and Convergent Validity

Concurrent validity has been established through extensive correlations with other standard cognitive measures. The DRS Total Score demonstrates strong positive correlations with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE; $r = .75$ to $.88$) and the Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale–Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-Cog; $r = -.82$ to $-.89$), alongside substantial associations with the Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) sum of boxes ($r = -.74$ to $-.85$). When evaluated against comprehensive, multi-hour neuropsychological test batteries, individual DRS subscales demonstrate strong domain-specific convergence: the DRS Memory subscale correlates robustly ($r = .70$ to $.82$) with the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) Logical Memory and Visual Reproduction indices; the Initiation and Perseveration subscale correlates significantly with the Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT / FAS; $r = .68$ to $.79$) and the Trail Making Test Part B ($r = -.65$ to $-.76$); and the Construction subscale correlates with the WAIS Block Design subtest ($r = .60$ to $.72$).

Discriminant and Predictive Diagnostic Validity

The DRS demonstrates diagnostic accuracy in separating cognitively healthy older adults from individuals with mild to severe neurodegenerative conditions. In landmark double cross-validation investigations by Monsch et al. (1995), a DRS cut-off score of $le 136$ yielded an optimal balance of sensitivity (.98) and specificity (.97) in discriminating clinically verified probable Alzheimer’s disease from normal healthy age-matched control subjects. In community-based epidemiological cohorts, cut-off thresholds between 129 and 132 consistently achieve sensitivity and specificity indices above .90.

Furthermore, the pattern of subscale breakdown provides critical discriminant validity across distinct dementia etiologies:

• Cortical vs. Subcortical Differentiation: Patients with Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD) or Huntington’s disease (HD) perform significantly worse on the Initiation and Perseveration subscale relative to the Memory subscale, while the inverse pattern characterizes patients with early-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
• Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) vs. Alzheimer’s Disease (AD): Individuals with DLB present with significantly lower scores on Construction and Attention subscales compared to AD patients matched for overall disease severity, reflecting early visual-perceptual and frontoparietal-attentional breakdown in DLB.
• Predictive Utility for Conversion: Longitudinal prospective cohort studies demonstrate that baseline total DRS scores and isolated Memory and Conceptualization subscale decrements predict conversion from Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) to Alzheimer’s dementia over two- to five-year follow-up intervals with high hazard ratios ($HR > 3.2$).

8. Reliability

The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale exhibits psychometric reliability across diverse clinical populations, languages, and testing environments. Empirical studies have consistently affirmed its internal consistency, test-retest stability, inter-rater reliability, and alternate-form equivalence.

Internal Consistency

In the foundational psychometric investigations conducted by Smith, Ivnik, Malec, et al. (1994), Cronbach’s alpha for the total DRS score was determined to be $.90$ in a large normative sample of community-dwelling older adults ($N = 1,241$). In clinically impaired cohorts diagnosed with probable dementia, the internal consistency of the total score is even higher, ranging from $.92$ to $.95$, reflecting minimal measurement error across the 36 performance items. At the subscale level, internal consistency estimates reflect task heterogeneity and length:

• Initiation and Perseveration: $\alpha = .87 – .91$
• Conceptualization: $\alpha = .82 – .88$
• Attention: $\alpha = .78 – .84$
• Memory: $\alpha = .75 – .82$
• Construction: $\alpha = .61 – .69$ (modest reliability expected given the brief, 6-point task length)

Test-Retest Reliability and Stability

Temporal stability evaluated across test-retest paradigms indicates excellent reproducibility. In stable geriatric control subjects re-evaluated across one- to three-week intervals, the Pearson test-retest correlation coefficient ($r_{tt}$) for the total DRS score routinely spans $.92$ to $.97$. In longitudinal cohorts re-tested over 6- to 12-month intervals, test-retest coefficients remain high ($r_{tt} = .88 – .92$), demonstrating that true intra-individual score changes over prolonged intervals reflect biological neurodegenerative progression rather than random test-retest fluctuation.

Inter-Rater and Scorer Reliability

Because the DRS incorporates behavioral performance tasks (such as copying visual ramparts, executing motor sequences, and scoring abstract conceptual comparisons), inter-examiner consistency is critical. Standardized scoring criteria published in the official test manual (Mattis, 1988) yield inter-rater intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) between $.96$ and $.99$ across experienced neuropsychologists, psychometrists, and trained clinical research coordinators. Graphomotor and visual construction scoring protocols demonstrate inter-rater agreement exceeding $94%$ when clinicians utilize published scoring rubrics.

Alternate-Form Equivalence

To eliminate practice and carryover effects in serial assessments, clinical trials, and longitudinal research, an alternate parallel form (DRS-2 Alternate Form) was developed and standardized. Psychometric equivalence studies demonstrate identical mean total scores and non-significant differences across subscales, with parallel-form correlation coefficients exceeding $r = .89$, confirming that clinicians can alternate forms without confounding naturalistic disease progression with measurement bias.

9. Factor Analysis

The underlying latent construct structure of the Dementia Rating Scale has been extensively examined through both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in healthy normative cohorts and clinical neurodegenerative samples.

Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA)

Early structural investigations utilizing principal component analysis (PCA) with varimax and oblimin rotations revealed that while Dr. Mattis originally proposed a five-subscale heuristic based on clinical-anatomical utility, statistical item covariances typically condense into three to four robust empirical factors:

• Factor 1: Executive Control and Behavioral Regulation: Explaining the largest proportion of total variance ($32% – 40%$), this factor is dominated by high loadings ($\lambda > .65$) from items within the Initiation and Perseveration subscale (verbal semantic fluency, alternate motor sequences, graphomotor ramparts) alongside inductive reasoning tasks from Conceptualization.
• Factor 2: Verbal and Episodic Memory: Accounting for approximately $14% – 18%$ of variance, this dimension is characterized by heavy loadings from orientation items, delayed sentence recall, and verbal recognition tasks.
• Factor 3: Abstract Visuoperceptual and Constructive Reasoning: Accounting for $8% – 12%$ of variance, this factor captures loadings from the Construction subscale, visual matching, and non-verbal conceptual oddities/identities tasks.
• Factor 4: Elementary Attentional Tracking: In four-factor solutions, basic acoustic digit span and simple command execution separate into an independent attentional factor accounting for $6% – 8%$ of common variance.

Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) and Model Fit

Contemporary psychometric evaluations employing confirmatory structural equation modeling have rigorously compared competitive theoretical models. In a benchmark structural validation study involving over 1,000 older adults, investigators contrasted: (a) a single-factor unidimensional model of global cognitive impairment; (b) the theoretical five-factor model directly reflecting the five DRS subscales; and (c) a hierarchical bifactor model featuring a robust general cognitive factor ($g$) alongside five group factors.

The standard single-factor model exhibited poor fit to the empirical data (${\chi}^2 / df > 5.2$, Comparative Fit Index [CFI] = $.81$, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [RMSEA] = $.089$). Conversely, the correlated five-factor model and the hierarchical bifactor model yielded excellent goodness-of-fit metrics across multiple independent investigations:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): $.95 – .97$
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): $.94 – .96$
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): $.041 – .048$ ($90%$ confidence interval: $.036 – .053$)
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): $.038 – .044$

These CFA findings confirm that although a dominant general cognitive factor underlies overall performance—justifying the clinical utility of the Total DRS Score—the five specialized subscale dimensions possess sufficient unique variance and psychometric orthogonality to justify their independent interpretation in diagnostic neuropsychological profiling.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale (and its contemporary revision, the DRS-2) is a comprehensive, performance-based cognitive examination battery administered individually by a trained clinician or psychometrist.

Structural Configuration

• Administration Type: Clinician-administered interactive performance battery utilizing standardized verbal instructions, visual stimulus booklets, and pencil-and-paper response protocols.
• Administration Duration: Approximately 15 to 30 minutes in unimpaired older adults (utilizing the adaptive discontinue algorithm); 30 to 45 minutes in moderately impaired patients.
• Total Item Count: 36 distinct neurobehavioral tasks comprising 32 performance-based cognitive and motor activities.
• Subscale Breakdown:
  • Attention: 6 items/tasks (Maximum raw score = 37)
  • Initiation and Perseveration: 11 items/tasks (Maximum raw score = 37)
  • Construction: 6 items/tasks (Maximum raw score = 6)
  • Conceptualization: 6 items/tasks (Maximum raw score = 39)
  • Memory: 5 items/tasks (Maximum raw score = 25)
• Cumulative Global Score: Summation of all five subscale raw scores, producing a total score ranging between 0 and 144 points.

Response and Scoring Format

• Response Format: Performance-based scoring (tasks are scored between 0 to 1, 0 to 2, or higher depending on task accuracy, with total scale score ranging from 0 to 144).
• Hierarchical Discontinue Rule: Within designated subscales, the most demanding task is presented first. If an examinee performs successfully without error on this initial screening item, maximum possible credit is automatically credited for all underlying subordinate tasks within that section, and the administrator moves immediately to the subsequent subscale. If an error is committed on the screen, all subordinate tasks in that subscale must be systematically administered and scored individually.
• Standardization and Normative Systems: Raw subscale and total scores are converted into Age- and Education-Adjusted Scaled Scores (mean = 10, standard deviation = 3), Age-Adjusted Percentile Ranks, and standard Index Scores (mean = 100, standard deviation = 15). Extensive normative reference systems include Mayo’s Older Americans Normative Studies (MOANS), Mayo’s Older African American Normative Studies (MOAANS), and comprehensive European normative datasets.

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Dementia Rating Scale was initially developed by Dr. Steven Mattis in 1973 and formally published in clinical literature in 1976. In 1988, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. (PAR) released the formalized, commercial Dementia Rating Scale: Professional Manual. In 2001, PAR published the updated Dementia Rating Scale-2 (DRS-2), co-authored by Paul J. Jurica, Christopher L. Leitten, and Steven Mattis, accompanied by standardized scoring software, an Alternate Form, and expanded normative tables.

The instrument, stimulus cards, scoring protocols, and professional manuals are proprietary, copyrighted psychometric materials owned exclusively by Psychological Assessment Resources (PAR). The test materials are not in the public domain and cannot be photocopied, digitally reproduced, or distributed without explicit written authorization and formal licensing agreements. Qualified clinical professionals (holding Qualification Level C in psychology, neuropsychology, or allied medical disciplines) may purchase test kits, stimulus booklets, and standardized record forms directly from the publisher at parinc.com. Modest educational and research licensing discounts may be obtained by academic investigators through formal application to PAR’s permissions and rights department.

12. References

The following scientific publications provide foundational normative, psychometric, and diagnostic empirical validation for the Dementia Rating Scale:

• Coblentz, J. M., Mattis, S., Zingesser, L. H., Hurwitz, S. S., & Wiśniewski, H. M. (1973). Presenile dementia: Clinical aspects and evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics. Archives of Neurology, 29(5), 299–308. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1973.00490290039003
• Jurica, P. J., Leitten, C. L., & Mattis, S. (2001). Dementia Rating Scale-2: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources. https://www.parinc.com/Products/Product.aspx?ProductID=DRS-2
• Lucas, J. A., Ivnik, R. J., Smith, G. E., Bohac, D. L., Tangalos, E. G., Graff-Radford, N. R., & Petersen, R. C. (1998). Normative data for the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(4), 536–547. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.20.4.536.1471
• Mattis, S. (1976). Mental status examination for organic mental syndrome in the elderly patient. In L. Bellak & T. B. Karasu (Eds.), Geriatric psychiatry: A handbook for psychiatrists and primary care physicians (pp. 77–121). Grune & Stratton.
• Mattis, S. (1988). Dementia Rating Scale: Professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.
• McDowell, I. (2006). Measuring health: A guide to rating scales and questionnaires (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195165678.001.0001
• Monsch, A. U., Bondi, M. W., Salmon, D. P., Butters, N., Thal, L. J., Hansen, L. A., Wiederholt, W. C., Cahn, D. A., & Klauber, M. R. (1995). Clinical validity of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale in detecting dementia of the Alzheimer type: A double cross-validation and application to a community-dwelling sample. Archives of Neurology, 52(9), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1995.00540330077018
• Rilling, L. M., Lucas, J. A., Ivnik, R. J., Smith, G. E., Willis, F. B., Ferman, T. J., & Petersen, R. C. (2005). Mayo’s older African American normative studies: Norms for the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 19(2), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854040590945328
• Schmidt, R., Freidl, W., Fazekas, F., Reinhart, B., Grieshofer, P., Koch, M., Eber, B., Schumacher, M., Polmin, K., & Lechner, H. (1994). The Mattis Dementia Rating Scale: Normative data for 1,001 healthy volunteers. Neurology, 44(5), 964–966. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.44.5.964
• Smith, G. E., Ivnik, R. J., Malec, J. F., Kokmen, E., Tangalos, E., & Petersen, R. C. (1994). Psychometric properties of the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale. Assessment, 1(2), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319119400100203

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)