Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ)

Abstract

The Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ) is one of the most widely utilized and psychometrically validated self-report instruments designed to assess perceived discord, communication deficits, negative affect, and global relationship distress within parent-adolescent dyads. Originally developed by Ronald J. Prinz, Sharon L. Foster, Ronald N. Kent, and K. Daniel O’Leary in 1979 as a 73-item comprehensive inventory, the instrument was subsequently refined by Arthur L. Robin and Sharon L. Foster (1989) into an abbreviated, highly clinical 20-item version (alongside an ultra-brief 44- and 20-item dyadic format). The measure captures both the parent’s appraisal of the adolescent’s behavior and the adolescent’s appraisal of the parent’s behavior (with parallel forms specifically tailored for appraisals of mothers and fathers). Completed using a dichotomous True/False response format, the 20-item CBQ evaluates negative communication patterns, perceived unfairness, emotional escalation, verbal aggression, and mutual dissatisfaction. Psychometrically, the CBQ demonstrates exceptional internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients consistently exceeding .88 to .95 across diverse adolescent, maternal, and paternal clinical and non-clinical samples. It possesses robust discriminative validity, reliably differentiating distressed family dyads referred for behavioral, emotional, or externalizing problems from non-distressed control families. Furthermore, the questionnaire demonstrates strong convergent validity with direct behavioral observations of family conflict resolution tasks, home problem-solving discussions, and collateral relationship indices such as the Family Environment Scale. Factor-analytic evaluations generally support an overarching unidimensional construct of generalized dyadic conflict distress, while multidimensional investigations identify distinct second-order facets encompassing hostile-aggressive interactions, positive communication/empathy deficits, and collaborative problem-solving failures. This article provides an exhaustive psychometric and theoretical review of the CBQ, examining its empirical foundations, factor structure, clinical cut-off scores, cross-cultural applications, and standardized administration protocols.

Keywords

Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire, CBQ, parent-adolescent conflict, family assessment, behavioral family systems, adolescent psychopathology, dyadic discord, family psychometrics, Ronald Prinz, Arthur Robin, Sharon Foster

Authors

The Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire was originally conceptualized, constructed, and empirically validated by a team of clinical psychologists and family researchers specializing in behavioral assessment and parent-child interaction at the State University of New York at Stony Brook:

• Ronald J. Prinz, Ph.D. — Carolina Distinguished Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, United States. Renowned expert in child clinical psychology, family-based interventions, and behavioral family assessment.
• Sharon L. Foster, Ph.D. — Professor Emerita of Clinical Psychology, California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University, San Diego, California, United States. Leading researcher in developmental psychopathology, family therapy, and adolescent social competency.
• Ronald N. Kent, Ph.D. — Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York, United States. Specialized in observational methodology and clinical child behavior assessment.
• K. Daniel O’Leary, Ph.D. — Distinguished Professor of Clinical Psychology, Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States. International authority on marital and family aggression, observational coding, and cognitive-behavioral couples therapy.

The shortened, widely adopted 20-item and 44-item clinical versions were subsequently standardized, normed, and clinically manualized by:

• Arthur L. Robin, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, and Director of Psychology Training at Children’s Hospital of Michigan, Detroit, Michigan, United States. Pioneer in the integration of behavioral and family systems therapies for parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
• Sharon L. Foster, Ph.D. (co-author of the seminal 1989 clinical manual Negotiating Parent-Adolescent Conflict: A Behavioral-Family Systems Approach).

Purpose

The transition from childhood to adolescence is marked by pronounced biological, cognitive, emotional, and social transformations that inevitably perturb family homeostasis. During this developmental period, the recalibration of parental authority versus adolescent autonomy frequently precipitates heightened interpersonal friction. While moderate, normative conflict serves an adaptive developmental function by facilitating individuation, autonomous identity development, and the renegotiation of family boundaries, severe or unregulated parent-adolescent conflict is a formidable transdiagnostic risk factor. Elevated familial discord is clinically linked to adolescent major depressive disorder, self-harm, conduct disorder, substance misuse, delinquency, school failure, and subsequent romantic relationship dysfunction in emerging adulthood. The primary purpose of the Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire is to provide an objective, rapid, and psychometrically rigorous instrument capable of quantifying the severity of dyadic negative communication, coercive behavioral interchanges, and subjective emotional dissatisfaction within parent-adolescent relationships.

In clinical practice, the CBQ serves multiple interrelated functions:

• Comprehensive Multi-Informant Assessment: Because perceptions of familial interactions diverge sharply between generations, clinical evaluation requires collateral, multi-informant data. The CBQ features parallel mother, father, and adolescent forms, enabling clinicians to contrast maternal, paternal, and adolescent subjective appraisals of dyadic functioning. Discrepancies between parent and adolescent scores frequently illuminate unshared realities, cognitive distortions, and asymmetrical attributions that can become focal targets for systemic or behavioral intervention.
• Diagnostic Screening and Triage: The tool distinguishes between developmentally normative disputes (e.g., minor bickering over domestic chores or bedtime routines) and clinically distressed, toxic conflict characterized by pervasive hostility, verbal degradation, emotional disengagement, and breakdown of problem-solving capacities. Clinicians utilize validated empirical cut-off thresholds to identify dyads requiring intensive behavioral family therapy or multi-systemic intervention.
• Treatment Planning and Target Identification: By evaluating specific behavioral exemplars—such as screaming, mutual accusations of unfairness, defensive posturing, inability to calm down after arguments, and perceived lack of empathy—the CBQ highlights the precise transactional mechanisms perpetuating systemic discord. This granular data guides the formulation of targeted communication skills training, behavioral contracting, and cognitive reframing protocols.
• Treatment Outcome Monitoring: Administered longitudinally across pre-treatment, mid-treatment, post-treatment, and follow-up intervals, the CBQ offers an efficient index of therapeutic response. Reductions in raw conflict scores demonstrate the remediation of coercive cycles, the re-establishment of collaborative negotiation, and the restoration of affective warmth within the nuclear family unit.

In empirical research, the CBQ is extensively deployed across developmental psychology, clinical child psychology, pediatric medicine, and family sociology. It is frequently implemented to evaluate the efficacy of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for adolescent internalizing and externalizing disorders, examine the bidirectional interactions between adolescent chronic illness (e.g., traumatic brain injury, type 1 diabetes) and family stress, and model complex parent-adolescent socialization processes such as parental monitoring, behavioral control, and psychological autonomy granting.

Psychological Construct

The psychological construct assessed by the Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire is parent-adolescent dyadic conflict, conceptualized as a multi-determined behavioral, affective, and cognitive phenomenon. Unlike global family climate inventories that capture ambient household tension, the CBQ explicitly measures the micro-level and macro-level behavioral topographies of negative relational exchange occurring within a specific parent-child dyad. The construct reflects an interplay of five interrelated psychological dimensions:

1. Negative Affective Reactivity and Emotional Dysregulation

A core hallmark of distressed parent-adolescent interaction is the rapid escalation and protracted maintenance of negative emotional states. Within the CBQ, this construct manifests through items reflecting frequent anger arousal (e.g., “At least three times a week, we get angry at each other”; “At least once a day, we get angry at each other”) and overt behavioral expressions of hostility such as yelling and screaming (e.g., “My parent screams at me a lot”). High scores tap into intense affective reactivity, where benign conversational triggers instantaneously provoke defensive anger, contempt, and physiological arousal, precluding calm or rational interaction.

2. Deficits in Collaborative Communication and Problem-Solving

Non-distressed families manage conflict through active listening, reciprocal compromise, perspective-taking, and constructive conflict de-escalation. In contrast, distressed dyads exhibit pronounced skill deficits in basic conflict resolution. The CBQ explicitly indexes the presence versus absence of these constructive behavioral topographies through items such as “My teenager and I compromise during arguments”, “My parent and I sometimes end our arguments calmly”, and “My parent understands my point of view even when she/he doesn’t agree with me”. The breakdown of problem-solving generates an experience of futility, captured by appraisals that discussions are unproductive and emotionally exhausting (e.g., “The talks we have are frustrating”).

3. Cognitive Misattributions, Invalidation, and Hostile Attributions

Parent-adolescent conflict is fundamentally sustained by underlying cognitive appraisals and maladaptive belief systems. Distressed parents and adolescents routinely make global, stable, and internal attributions regarding each other’s negative behaviors. The CBQ taps into mutual feelings of invalidation, perceived intentional malevolence, and global non-consideration (e.g., “She says I have no consideration for her”; “My teenager tells me s/he thinks I am unfair”; “My teenager thinks my opinions don’t count”). In these dyads, each party believes the other possesses fundamental lack of respect, invalidating their autonomy and personal perspective.

4. Coercive Control versus Autonomy Resistance

Developmentally, adolescents seek psychological and behavioral autonomy, while parents often strive to preserve family rules, safety guidelines, and monitoring. In distressed dyads, this dynamic degenerates into authoritarian coercion met by oppositional resistance. The CBQ captures this construct through parental perceptions of non-compliance (e.g., “My teenager often doesn’t do what I ask”) and adolescent perceptions of parental over-control and intrusiveness (e.g., “My parent is bossy when we talk”; “My parent seems to be always complaining about me”). The central dispute shifts from substantive issues to a raw struggle for power and boundary control (e.g., “We argue a lot about rules”).

5. Relational Erosion and Lack of Affective Closeness

Chronic conflict erodes foundational attachment security, intimacy, and positive reinforcement within the family. As coercive cycles dominate, rewarding and enjoyable shared activities evaporate. The CBQ assesses the absence of relational warmth and companionship through reverse-scored indicators of positive connection, such as “My parent is a good friend to me”, “I enjoy the talks we have”, “I enjoy spending time with my parent”, and “In general, I don’t think we get along very well”. Relational erosion transforms the relationship into a purely adversarial association, removing the positive relational buffers necessary to endure typical developmental challenges.

Theoretical Framework

The Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire is theoretically anchored in the Behavioral-Family Systems Model of parent-adolescent conflict formulated by Arthur L. Robin and Sharon L. Foster (1989), which synthesized concepts from applied behavior analysis, social learning theory, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and structural family systems theory. The theoretical architecture rests upon four foundational pillars:

1. Patterson’s Coercion Model and Negative Reinforcement

A primary theoretical root of the CBQ is Gerald Patterson’s Coercion Theory, originally developed at the Oregon Social Learning Center to explain the genesis and maintenance of aggressive, anti-social child behaviors. Patterson posited that family conflict is governed by reciprocal cycles of negative reinforcement. In a distressed dyad, one individual (e.g., the parent) issues a demand or aversive stimulus; the other individual (the adolescent) responds with an intensified aversive behavior (e.g., yelling, defiance, slamming doors, verbal insults). If the parent backs down, terminates the demand, or walks away, the adolescent’s explosive hostility is negatively reinforced through escape or avoidance of the requirement. Conversely, if the parent escalates to extreme punitive coercion (e.g., screaming, severe physical or grounding threats) and the adolescent momentarily acquiesces, the parent’s hostile tactics are likewise negatively reinforced. Over time, both participants learn that escalating aversive behaviors is the only functional mechanism to terminate distress or control the partner. The CBQ items (e.g., “My parent screams at me a lot”, “My teenager is defensive when I talk to him or her”) explicitly capture these coercive, escalating transactional exchanges.

2. Gottman’s Affective Communication and Negative Reciprocity

The behavioral conceptualization of the CBQ also integrates the affective communication theories of John Gottman. In marital and dyadic systems, distressed relationships are characterized by negative affect reciprocity—the probabilistic tendency for an individual to respond to a partner’s hostile, defensive, or contemptuous statement with an equally or more hostile affective response. In non-distressed dyads, an aversive comment is routinely absorbed or de-escalated through humor, empathy, or neutral problem-solving. In distressed dyads, negative affect is reciprocated with near-certain probability, creating uncontainable behavioral loops. The CBQ operationalizes this failure to interrupt negative escalation, measuring the frequency of persistent, recurring fights over trivial topics (e.g., “My teenager and I have big argument about little things”).

3. Cognitive Distortions and Dysfunctional Belief Systems

Robin and Foster augmented pure radical behavioral accounts by integrating Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) and cognitive appraisal models. They asserted that behavioral escalation is fueled by rigid, irrational core beliefs held by parents (e.g., beliefs regarding absolute obedience, catastrophizing minor teenage rebellion, perfectionism) and adolescents (e.g., autonomy entitlement, perceived total malicious unfairness, catastrophizing parental boundaries). When a parent encounters non-compliance, their cognitive appraisal (e.g., “My teenager has no respect for me and is deliberately trying to destroy my authority”) immediately induces rage, prompting coercive parenting. The CBQ directly taps into these relational attributions, assessing perceived injustice, unfairness, and intentional lack of consideration.

4. Structural Family Systems and Boundary Renegotiation

From structural family systems theory (Salvador Minuchin), the CBQ draws on the concept of boundaries and developmental realignment. Minuchin posited that families must continuously adjust their subsystem boundaries (parental executive subsystem vs. child subsystem) as children age. Adolescence necessitates a structural shift from a hierarchical, unilateral parental command structure to a more permeable, bilateral, and egalitarian negotiation framework. In distressed families, structural rigidity prevents this necessary realignment: parents double down on authoritarian control, or parent-child boundaries become enmeshed or chaotic. The CBQ measures the manifest behavioral symptoms of structural failure—constant disputes over household rules, lack of mutual empathy, and pervasive relational dissatisfaction.

Validity

The Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire has been subjected to rigorous psychometric scrutiny across more than four decades of international empirical research, accumulating an extensive body of evidence supporting its construct, criterion-related, convergent, and discriminant validity.

Discriminant and Known-Groups Validity

The foundational validation studies conducted by Prinz et al. (1979) established the extraordinary known-groups validity of the instrument. In their seminal investigation comparing clinic-referred distressed parent-adolescent dyads with matched non-distressed, non-clinic control dyads, the original 73-item CBQ demonstrated robust discrimination across all informant categories. Distressed parents and distressed adolescents reported dramatically higher CBQ conflict scores compared to non-distressed dyads ($p < .001$). Subsequent validation of the 20-item short form by Robin and Foster (1989) confirmed that the abbreviated version preserved this discriminative precision, yielding zero significant loss of diagnostic classification accuracy. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analyses frequently reveal high Area Under the Curve (AUC > .85) statistics, underscoring its utility as a clinical screening device.

Convergent Validity

The convergent validity of the CBQ has been established through strong correlations with collateral self-report measures and, critically, with direct behavioral observation paradigms:

• Convergence with Direct Behavioral Observation: In the groundbreaking validation by Prinz et al. (1979) and Robin and Foster (1989), family dyads completed structured, 10-minute conflict resolution discussions focused on emotionally charged family topics. Discussions were videotaped and coded using micro-observational behavioral coding systems (such as the Family Interaction Coding System and the Interaction Behaviors Code). CBQ scores from both parents and adolescents correlated significantly ($r = .50$ to $.70$) with objectively observed rates of negative verbal behavior (criticism, threats, put-downs, interruptions) and inversely correlated with observed rates of positive problem-solving, validation, and compromise.
• Convergence with Standardized Family Measures: CBQ scores exhibit strong, statistically significant positive correlations ($r = .60$ to $.82$) with the Conflict subscale of the Family Environment Scale (FES), the Parent-Adolescent Relationship Questionnaire (PARQ), and the Issues Checklist (IC). Conversely, it correlates negatively with indices of family cohesion, parental warmth, and positive communication.

Predictive and Ecological Validity

Longitudinal studies demonstrate that elevated baseline scores on the CBQ predict subsequent increases in adolescent delinquency, internalizing distress, substance experimentation, and treatment dropout in pediatric behavioral interventions. In pediatric clinical samples, such as Wade et al. (2008), the CBQ reliably predicted treatment response and functional rehabilitation in adolescents recovering from traumatic brain injury, demonstrating the instrument’s sensitivity to neurobehavioral and systemic therapeutic improvements.

Reliability

The reliability of the Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire is exceptionally well-documented across clinical and community populations, with empirical investigations establishing superior internal consistency and temporal stability across multi-informant administrations.

Internal Consistency

Despite its brief, 20-item format and binary True/False metric, the CBQ exhibits outstanding internal consistency across diverse respondent groups:

• Parent Form (CBQ-P): Cronbach’s alpha coefficients routinely range from $lpha = .88$ to $.94$ in clinical samples, and between $.86$ and $.91$ in community samples. Maternal and paternal versions demonstrate equivalent levels of homogeneity.
• Adolescent Form (CBQ-A): When evaluating maternal behavior (CBQ-A Mother), alpha coefficients consistently range from $lpha = .89$ to $.95$. Parallel evaluations of paternal behavior (CBQ-A Father) yield identical reliability benchmarks ($lpha = .89$ to $.94$).
• Split-Half Reliability: Spearman-Brown split-half reliability coefficients across both the original and abbreviated versions exceed $r_{sb} = .85$, confirming uniform item content and absence of measurement drift across questionnaire halves.

Test-Retest Stability

The temporal stability of the CBQ has been corroborated across varying non-intervention intervals. Over a 6- to 8-week test-retest period in non-treatment control samples of adolescents and parents, stability coefficients range from $r = .75$ to $.85$, reflecting a high degree of measurement reliability while remaining sensitive to genuine behavioral changes produced by clinical interventions or longitudinal systemic maturation.

Factor Analysis

Extensive psychometric investigations employing both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) have probed the latent structural dimensionality of the Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire.

Unidimensional Factorial Model

In the seminal psychometric work by Robin and Foster (1989), factor analyses of the 20-item CBQ demonstrated that the questionnaire is predominantly unidimensional. Principal Axis Factoring and Maximum Likelihood extraction methods routinely yield a massive first general factor—accounting for 45% to 58% of the total scale variance—with an eigenvalue frequently exceeding 8.0 to 10.0, followed by a steep drop-off to trivial secondary eigenvalues. Factor loadings for individual items onto this primary general conflict factor are robust, virtually all loading above $lambda = .45$, with key items loading between $lambda = .60$ and $.82$ (e.g., “The talks we have are frustrating”, “In general, I don’t think we get along very well”, and “We almost never seem to agree”). Consequently, the standard clinical and empirical application of the CBQ computes a single, composite dyadic conflict score.

Multidimensional Explorations

Notwithstanding the empirical utility of a single composite score, subsequent multidimensional CFA studies (e.g., Hayes et al., 2003, 2004) evaluating structural models have noted that the 20 items can be meaningfully decomposed into three highly correlated latent first-order dimensions, which load onto a single higher-order dyadic conflict construct:

• Factor 1: Overt Hostility and Emotional Escalation: Encompassing high-loading items capturing volatile affective expression, shouting, and high-frequency anger (e.g., CBQ-A items 7, 11, 17, 18).
• Factor 2: Deficits in Empathic Communication: Loading heavily on reversed items measuring mutual understanding, validation, and emotional support (e.g., CBQ-A items 2, 3, 8, 9, 14, 19).
• Factor 3: Coercive Control and Rule Friction: Capturing disputes over behavioral boundaries, unilateral demands, and perceived structural injustice (e.g., CBQ-P items 10, 19, 20; CBQ-A items 6, 12).

CFA fit indices for the higher-order hierarchical model typically demonstrate acceptable to excellent fit in parent and adolescent samples (Comparative Fit Index [$CFI$] $ge .92$, Tucker-Lewis Index [$TLI$] $ge .90$, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [$RMSEA$] $le .06$), confirming that the CBQ adequately balances structural parsimony with clinical nuance.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire is a multi-informant, self-report psychological instrument. The structural and administrative parameters of the validated 20-item version are summarized below:

• Test Type: Standardized self-report rating scale / multi-informant dyadic psychological questionnaire.
• Target Population: Parents (mothers and fathers) of adolescents, and adolescents aged 11 to 18 years.
• Parallel Versions:
  • CBQ — Parent Form (CBQ-P): Completed by the parent to assess interactions with a specific target teenager (20 items).
  • CBQ — Adolescent Form for Mother (CBQ-A Mother): Completed by the adolescent to assess interactions with their mother (20 items).
  • CBQ — Adolescent Form for Father (CBQ-A Father): Completed by the adolescent to assess interactions with their father (20 items).
  • CBQ — Adolescent Form (General Parent): A generalized variant evaluating a primary caregiver (20 items).
• Item Count: 20 items per form.
• Response Format: Dichotomous forced-choice format: True or False.
• Administration Time: Approximately 3 to 5 minutes per version, making it exceptionally feasible for rapid clinical screening and high-frequency monitoring.
• Scoring and Directionality: The CBQ yields an overall continuous score ranging from 0 to 20, with higher scores reflecting greater levels of conflict, hostility, communication dysfunction, and dyadic distress.
  • Parent Version Scoring:
    • Assign 1 point for each TRUE response to items: 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20.
    • Assign 1 point for each FALSE response (reverse-scored) to items: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 9.
  • Adolescent Version Scoring (Mother, Father, or General Parent):
    • Assign 1 point for each TRUE response to items: 1, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, and 18. (Note: numbering aligns with the adolescent questionnaire structure).
    • Assign 1 point for each FALSE response (reverse-scored) to items: 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 14, 19, and 20.
• Clinical Interpretation & Cut-Off Guidelines:
  • Non-Distressed / Normative Range (0 to 4 points): Reflects normal, non-pathological parent-adolescent interaction with low conflict, adequate affective warmth, and preserved problem-solving competencies.
  • Borderline / Mild Discord (5 to 8 points): Suggests emerging family friction, communication difficulties, and occasional coercive escalation; warrants clinical monitoring or preventive family guidance.
  • Clinically Distressed Range (9 to 20 points): Indicates severe dyadic distress, pervasive hostility, high-frequency anger, communication breakdown, and profound relational alienation. Dyads scoring $ge 9$ fall above the established clinical threshold identified in validation trials (Prinz et al., 1979; Robin & Foster, 1989), matching clinic-referred populations requiring structured systemic or behavioral intervention.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original 73-item Conflict Behaviour Questionnaire was published in 1979 in the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis by Ronald J. Prinz, Sharon L. Foster, Ronald N. Kent, and K. Daniel O’Leary. Under United States public access policies and journal copyright regulations governing older behavioral assessment literature, the original validation study and item rosters entered the scientific public domain for academic and clinical research purposes.

The standardized 20-item and 44-item clinical short forms were formally codified and published in 1989 in the clinical assessment manual Negotiating Parent-Adolescent Conflict: A Behavioral-Family Systems Approach, authored by Arthur L. Robin and Sharon L. Foster, published by The Guilford Press. Clinicians and researchers may administer the 20-item instrument for individual patient care, academic research protocols, and institutional educational programs without per-use royalty fees, provided full academic attribution is rendered to the original authors and publishers. For commercial distribution, digital software integration, or inclusion in monetized digital health platforms, written permissions must be secured from the copyright holders and publishers (The Guilford Press).

References

• Hayes, L. L., Hudson, A., & Matthews, J. (2003). Parental monitoring: A process model of parent-adolescent interaction. Behaviour Change, 20(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1375/bech.20.1.13.24838
• Hayes, L. L., Hudson, A., & Matthews, J. (2004). Parental monitoring behaviors: A model of rules, supervision, and conflict. Behavior Therapy, 35(3), 587–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80032-9
• Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Castalia Publishing Company.
• Prinz, R. J., Foster, S. L., Kent, R. N., & O’Leary, K. D. (1979). Multivariate assessment of conflict in distressed and nondistressed parent-adolescent dyads. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12(4), 691–700. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1979.12-691
• Robin, A. L., & Foster, S. L. (1989). Negotiating parent-adolescent conflict: A behavioral-family systems approach. Guilford Press.
• Robin, A. L., Koepke, T., & Nayar, M. (1986). Conceptualizing, assessing, and treating parent-adolescent conflict. In B. B. Lahey & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 87–124). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9820-2_3
• Wade, S. L., Walz, N. C., Carey, J., & Williams, K. M. (2008). Preliminary efficacy of a web-based family problem-solving treatment program for adolescents with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 23(6), 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.HTR.0000341432.70404.a6

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)