Behavioral Avoidance-Inhibition Scales (BIS-BAS)

Abstract

The Behavioral Avoidance-Inhibition Scales, commonly designated in differential psychology and affective neuroscience as the BIS/BAS Scales (Carver & White, 1994), represent one of the most widely implemented self-report psychometric instruments designed to operationalize individual differences in fundamental motivational systems. Rooted theoretically in Jeffrey A. Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) of personality, the instrument captures dispositional variance in two broad biobehavioral regulatory systems: the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), which mediates responsiveness to conditioned aversive stimuli, threat, novel cues, and passive avoidance, and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS; alternatively referred to as the Behavioral Approach System), which orchestrates appetitive motivation, incentive salience, and goal-directed approach behavior toward reward. The complete instrument consists of 24 self-report items evaluated on a 4-point Likert-type response format ranging from 1 (very true for me) to 4 (very false for me). Four of these statements serve as non-scored filler items, while the remaining 20 items resolve into four distinct, psychometrically validated factors: a single unifactorial BIS scale (7 items) and three distinct BAS subscales comprising BAS Drive (4 items), BAS Fun Seeking (4 items), and BAS Reward Responsiveness (5 items). Psychometric investigations across diverse cross-cultural, clinical, and non-clinical cohorts demonstrate moderate-to-high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alphas typically ranging from .73 to .86 across dimensions) and robust test-retest stability. Convergent and discriminant validity are evidenced through associations with frontocortical electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha asymmetry, laboratory-based punishment and reward paradigms, and differential vulnerability profiles for internalizing versus externalizing psychopathologies. This article provides an exhaustive, academically rigorous exposition of the BIS/BAS Scales, detailing their theoretical underpinnings, structural validity, psychometric metrics, clinical utility, scoring mechanisms, and authentic verbatim questionnaire inventory.

Keywords

Behavioral Inhibition System, Behavioral Activation System, BIS/BAS Scales, Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, Jeffrey Gray, Charles Carver, appetitive motivation, aversive motivation, frontal asymmetry, psychometrics

Authors

The Behavioral Avoidance-Inhibition Scales were developed and psychometrically validated by Charles S. Carver, Ph.D., and Teri L. White, Ph.D.

• Charles S. Carver, Ph.D. (1947–2019) was a distinguished professor of psychology at the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA. Dr. Carver was an internationally renowned scholar in personality psychology, social psychology, behavioral medicine, and self-regulation theory. Over a prolific career spanning more than four decades, he authored seminal textbooks, psychometric inventories (including the Life Orientation Test and the COPE Inventory), and hundreds of peer-reviewed articles investigating cybernetic control processes, dispositional optimism, coping mechanisms, and affective dynamics.
• Teri L. White, Ph.D. completed her doctoral training in clinical and personality psychology under the mentorship of Dr. Carver at the Department of Psychology, University of Miami. Dr. White contributed extensively to the empirical operationalization of Gray’s neuropsychological constructs, leading the laboratory psychophysiological testing, reward/punishment experimental manipulations, and latent factor modeling that culminated in the landmark 1994 publication in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Direct academic correspondence historically originated from the Department of Psychology, University of Miami, P.O. Box 248185, Coral Gables, Florida 33124-2070. The measure is maintained for academic research, non-commercial clinical inquiry, and university pedagogical training via public-domain scholarly distribution platforms.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the BIS/BAS Scales is to quantify individual dispositional sensitivities within the primary neurological systems governing appetitive approach and aversive withdrawal behaviors. Although Jeffrey A. Gray postulated a comprehensive neuropsychological model linking personality dimensions (anxiety and impulsivity) to brain substrate circuits, early research relied on proxies derived from Hans Eysenck’s Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ Neuroticism and Extraversion rotated 30 degrees). Carver and White identified critical conceptual and psychometric limitations in using such secondary mathematical rotations, arguing that rotated scales confound distinct motivational mechanisms with broader socio-emotional descriptors. Consequently, the BIS/BAS Scales were engineered de novo to provide direct, ecologically valid, and psychometrically independent assessments of incentive reactivity and threat sensitivity.

From an applied research perspective, the instrument serves as an indispensable tool across affective neuroscience, cognitive psychology, experimental psychopathology, and behavioral economics. In neuroimaging and psychophysiological domains, researchers utilize the scales to stratify experimental participants based on individual differences in resting and task-elicited frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha asymmetry, ventral striatal dopamine release, and amygdalar functional reactivity during monetary incentive delay (MID) paradigms. The instrument allows cognitive scientists to isolate how individual variations in incentive salience moderate attentional bias, working memory updating under emotional stress, and executive decision-making under risk.

In clinical and psychiatric contexts, the BIS/BAS Scales provide critical transdiagnostic utility. Variations in BIS and BAS sensitivities correspond reliably with broad spectrums of psychopathology outlined in the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) established by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Specifically, chronically elevated BIS sensitivity functions as a potent vulnerability factor and maintenance mechanism for internalizing disorders, including major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive spectrum conditions. Conversely, dysregulated BAS functioning exhibits bidirectional clinical expressions: extreme BAS hypoactivity is strongly linked to anhedonic presentation, apathy, and melancholic depression, whereas extreme BAS hyperactivity—particularly within the domains of drive and novelty-seeking—predicts bipolar spectrum affective switching, substance use disorders, pathological gambling, impulse-control deficits, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Psychological Construct

The psychological constructs measured by the Carver and White instrument comprise two overarching biobehavioral dimensions—Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation—with the activation construct further delineating into three empirically distinct facets. These dimensions tap the subjective, affective, and behavioral tendencies of an individual when confronted with impending punishment, non-reward, novelty, or appetitive incentives.

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

The BIS dimension (7 items) assesses an individual’s sensitivity to cues of punishment, non-reward, novelty, and negative social feedback, measuring the propensity to experience state anxiety and behavioral paralysis in threatening environments. Functioning as an internal comparator and conflict detector, a highly sensitive BIS generates cognitive rumination, anticipatory distress, and somatic tension when goal-directed behaviors encounter ambiguity or impending threat. Illustrative psychological manifestations captured by this construct include catastrophic cognitive expectancies (e.g., worry that an upcoming task will end poorly), marked sensitivity to interpersonal reprimand or social disapproval, and an inability to suppress fear reactions even when a threat is distant or uncertain.

Behavioral Activation System (BAS)

The BAS construct captures dispositional appetitive motivation, motor readiness, and positive hedonic reactivity when approaching desired incentives. During the scale’s initial factor-analytic development, Carver and White discovered that while BIS items clustered cleanly into a unifactorial structure, the BAS domain split into three distinct, moderately intercorrelated factors reflecting distinct phases and phenotypic presentations of approach motivation:

• BAS Drive (BAS-D): Comprising 4 items, this subscale measures persistent, unyielding, and focused goal-directed pursuit. It captures an individual’s active determination to obtain desired outcomes over sustained durations, even in the presence of obstacles. Individuals scoring high on BAS Drive embody relentless determination, proactive initiative, and an aggressive, “no holds barred” methodology toward personal achievements, career milestones, or physical objectives.
• BAS Fun Seeking (BAS-FS): Comprising 4 items, this subscale captures an individual’s willingness to approach novel, exciting, and potentially rewarding stimuli impulsively and on the spur of the moment. Unlike the structured, goal-directed perseverance of BAS Drive, Fun Seeking embodies spontaneous reward exploration, behavioral sensation-seeking, and an appetite for immediate gratification without extensive deliberation regarding prospective consequences. Psychometrically, this subscale shares the highest empirical overlap with impulsivity measures.
• BAS Reward Responsiveness (BAS-RR): Comprising 5 items, this subscale assesses the magnitude of positive affective arousal, subjective excitement, and hedonic pleasure experienced when receiving, anticipating, or winning positive incentives. It operationalizes affective hedonic tone: how strongly an individual is moved or psychologically invigorated when good things happen, when positive reinforcement is secured, or when positive feedback is provided. High scorers demonstrate profound emotional buoyancy and exuberant affective reactions to success.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual foundation of the BIS/BAS Scales is firmly situated in Jeffrey Alan Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), an influential neuropsychological model that synthesizes principles of classical and operant conditioning with functional neuroanatomy (Gray, 1987). In Gray’s classic formulation, mammalian behavior is mediated by three primary neurobehavioral systems: the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), the Behavioral Activation System (BAS), and the Fight-Flight System (FFS).

In Gray’s original neuropsychological architecture, the BIS is anatomically localized within the septo-hippocampal system, its monoaminergic afferents projecting from the locus coeruleus (noradrenaline) and the dorsal raphe nucleus (serotonin), and its bidirectional connections with the neocortex, particularly the prefrontal cortex. The physiological function of the BIS is to resolve goal conflicts—most prominently approach-avoidance conflicts, such as entering a territory where both food and predatory threats exist. When conflict is detected, the BIS interrupts ongoing motor execution, suppresses prepotent motor programs, heightens vigilance, initiates risk assessment behaviors, and intensifies selective attention toward threat cues. Subjectively, activation of this circuit is experienced as cognitive anxiety, apprehensiveness, and negative valence affect.

Conversely, the BAS is functionally localized within ascending mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways, connecting the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens, ventral striatum, amygdala, and medial prefrontal cortex. This circuitry governs incentive salience, motor energization, and the translation of conditioned reward stimuli into active approach behavior. Activation of the BAS generates positive affective states such as hope, anticipatory elation, and hedonic pleasure, driving the organism to traverse spatial and temporal distance to secure primary and secondary reinforcers.

Carver and White’s (1994) measurement model operationalized these theoretical dynamics within human differential psychology. They integrated Gray’s neurobiology with self-regulatory cybernetic control models developed by Carver and Scheier (Carver & Scheier, 1998). In this framework, human behavior is conceptualized as governed by continuous closed feedback loops: a discrepancy-reducing feedback loop that pulls the individual closer to desired reference values (BAS activity), and a discrepancy-amplifying feedback loop that drives the individual away from aversive or dangerous reference values (BIS activity). The scales measure the set points and biological responsiveness of these reciprocal feedback loops, offering a structural bridge between micro-level neurobiology and macro-level behavioral personality manifestations.

Validity

The construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validities of the Carver and White BIS/BAS Scales have been subjected to extensive empirical verification across three decades of psychometric and experimental research.

Construct and Convergent Validity

In the seminal validation paper (Carver & White, 1994), convergent validity was demonstrated by benchmarking the scales against established personality measures. The BIS scale correlated strongly and positively with indices of trait anxiety, neuroticism, and negative affectivity, including the Manifest Anxiety Scale ($r = .59$), the Eysenck Neuroticism scale ($r = .42$), and Watson, Clark, and Tellegen’s Trait Negative Affectivity ($r = .58$). Crucially, BIS demonstrated near-zero correlations with measures of extraversion, sensation-seeking, and positive emotionality, confirming strict discriminant independence from appetitive domains.

The three BAS scales exhibited consistent convergent associations with Extraversion, positive affectivity, and reward expectancy. BAS Drive, Fun Seeking, and Reward Responsiveness correlated moderately with Eysenck’s Extraversion scale ($r = .34$, $.41$, and $.31$, respectively) and with Trait Positive Affectivity ($r = .41$, $.36$, and $.45$, respectively). Differential convergence further corroborated the tri-partite BAS structure: BAS Fun Seeking correlated strongly with Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale ($r = .52$, particularly the Impulsive Sensation Seeking subscale), whereas BAS Drive correlated most strongly with self-directed achievement motivation and persistence measures, and BAS Reward Responsiveness correlated with dispositional emotional reactivity to favorable events.

Experimental and Predictive Validity

Carver and White established predictive criterion validity through laboratory experiments involving controlled situational inductions of reward and punishment. In a performance-based incentive experiment, subjects were exposed to conditions where performance could either yield monetary reward or avert monetary loss and public humiliation. Individuals scoring high on the BIS scale exhibited dramatically elevated nervousness, subjective distress, and state anxiety when threatened with imminent punishment, whereas their affective response to reward remained indifferent. Conversely, individuals scoring high on the BAS scales exhibited statistically significant surges in positive affect, vigor, and performance speed when incentivized by impending rewards, without exhibiting differential anxiety under threat.

Neurobiological and Psychophysiological Validity

Subsequent psychophysiological investigations have firmly established the construct validity of the BIS/BAS Scales via biological markers. Seminal research by Davidson, Sutton, and Henriques, as well as Harmon-Jones and colleagues (Sutton & Davidson, 1997; Harmon-Jones & Allen, 1997), demonstrated that elevated BAS scores—particularly BAS Drive—uniquely correlate with higher resting left-frontal electroencephalographic (EEG) activation (reflected by reduced alpha power in the left prefrontal cortex relative to the right). In contrast, high BIS scores are associated with relative right-frontal hypoactivation or heightened right-sided anterior reactivity during threat monitoring. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have further shown that BAS scores predict blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activation in the ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex during the presentation of appetitive stimuli, whereas BIS scores predict heightened amygdala and anterior insular recruitment during aversive processing.

Reliability

The psychometric reliability of the BIS/BAS Scales has been demonstrated across diverse demographic cohorts, academic laboratories, and translated adaptations globally (e.g., German, Dutch, Italian, French, Spanish, Japanese, and Chinese adaptations).

Internal Consistency Reliability

In the original normative sample of undergraduate university students ($N = 732$), Carver and White (1994) documented acceptable to robust internal consistency across all four scales:

• BIS Scale: Cronbach’s $\alpha = .74$ (7 items)
• BAS Drive: Cronbach’s $\alpha = .76$ (4 items)
• BAS Fun Seeking: Cronbach’s $\alpha = .66$ (4 items)
• BAS Reward Responsiveness: Cronbach’s $\alpha = .73$ (5 items)

Subsequent psychometric evaluations across large-scale epidemiological and adult community samples have replicated these coefficients, frequently reporting higher reliabilities. For example, in a large representative community sample ($N = 2,725$) examined by Jorm and colleagues (Jorm et al., 1999), internal consistency coefficients were reported as $\alpha = .76$ for BIS, $\alpha = .76$ for BAS Drive, $\alpha = .65$ for BAS Fun Seeking, and $\alpha = .71$ for BAS Reward Responsiveness. In psychiatric clinical cohorts, meta-analytic assessments indicate that the BIS scale routinely exhibits internal consistency exceeding $\alpha = .80$, driven by elevated variance in negative affective pathology.

Test-Retest Stability

Temporal stability assessments substantiate that the BIS/BAS Scales measure stable, trait-like psychological dispositions rather than transient emotional states. Carver and White (1994) administered the instrument across an 8-week interval ($N = 113$), yielding statistically robust Pearson test-retest reliability coefficients:

• BIS Scale: $r_{tt} = .66$ ($p < .001$)
• BAS Drive: $r_{tt} = .66$ ($p < .001$)
• BAS Fun Seeking: $r_{tt} = .69$ ($p < .001$)
• BAS Reward Responsiveness: $r_{tt} = .59$ ($p < .001$)

Subsequent longitudinal studies tracking adult cohorts across 12-to-24-month intervals (e.g., Leone et al., 2001) have confirmed comparable stability coefficients ($r$ values ranging between .60 and .72), indicating that despite minor fluctuations attributable to state life events, individual differences in reinforcement sensitivity remain fundamentally enduring across time.

Factor Analysis

The structural dimensionality of the BIS/BAS Scales has been rigorously scrutinized using both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). During original scale construction, an initial battery of 36 candidate items derived from theoretical descriptors of BIS and BAS functioning was administered to 732 participants. Principal axis factoring with oblique rotation yielded a clean four-factor solution that accounted for the underlying item variance. The factor-analytic architecture revealed a completely independent BIS factor and three interconnected yet distinct BAS factors.

Factor Loadings

In the final 20-item scored model, Carver and White retained items that satisfied strict structural criteria: substantial primary loadings on their designated latent factor (typically $lambda ge .45$) and low cross-loadings on competing factors ($lambda < .20$). The empirical factor loadings from the foundational principal axis factoring solution are summarized below:

• Factor 1: Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): Characterized by high loadings from items capturing worry, nervousness, and fear of failure. Item 16 (“If I think something unpleasant is going to happen…”) exhibited the highest loading at $.71$, followed by Item 8 (“Criticism or scolding hurts me quite a…”) at $.64$, Item 19 (“I feel worried when I think I have done poorly…”) at $.60$, Item 13 at $.58$, Item 24 at $.57$, Item 2 (reverse-scored) at $-.44$, and Item 22 (reverse-scored) at $-.41$.
• Factor 2: BAS Reward Responsiveness (BAS-RR): Items capture excitement and affective reactivity to good events. Item 7 (“When I get something, I want, I feel excited…”) loaded at $.68$, Item 18 (“When good things happen to me, it affects me…”) loaded at $.65$, Item 4 at $.57$, Item 14 at $.54$, and Item 23 at $.48$.
• Factor 3: BAS Drive (BAS-D): Characterized by goal persistence and relentless approach. Item 9 (“When I want something, I usually go all-out to get…”) loaded at $.75$, Item 3 (“I go out of my way to get things I…”) loaded at $.68$, Item 12 at $.60$, and Item 21 (“When I go after something I use a ‘no holds barred’ approach.”) at $.56$.
• Factor 4: BAS Fun Seeking (BAS-FS): Driven by novelty seeking and spontaneity. Item 10 (“I will often do things for no other reason than…”) loaded at $.68$, Item 15 (“I often act on the spur of the…”) loaded at $.63$, Item 5 at $.56$, and Item 20 (“I crave excitement and new…”) loaded at $.54$.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Model Fit

Multiple structural equation modeling (SEM) investigations have contrasted alternative dimensional representations of the BIS/BAS inventory. Tested models generally contrast: (a) a two-factor model (collapsing all BAS items into a single broad approach factor vs. BIS), (b) an orthogonal four-factor model, (c) a correlated four-factor model, and (d) a hierarchical bifactor model (incorporating a general BAS factor alongside orthogonal specific BAS subfactors). Across studies (e.g., Cogswell et al., 2006; Franken et al., 2005; Campbell-Sills et al., 2004), the correlated four-factor model consistently demonstrates superior fit to the data relative to the unidimensional or two-factor alternatives, satisfying conventional psychometric criteria:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI) $ge .92 – .95$
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) $ge .91 – .94$
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) $le .045 – .062$ ($90%\text{ CI } [.040, .068]$)
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) $le .050$

Inter-factor correlations in CFA frameworks confirm that the latent BIS factor is virtually orthogonal to the BAS factors ($r$ values typically between $-.10$ and $.12$, non-significant), whereas latent correlations among the three BAS subfactors range from moderate to strong ($r_{\text{Drive-FS}} \approx .38 – .45$; $r_{\text{Drive-RR}} \approx .42 – .50$; $r_{\text{FS-RR}} \approx .35 – .41$). This robust structural divergence validates Carver and White’s theoretical recommendation to maintain the three BAS subscales as distinct operational dimensions rather than prematurely aggregating them into an omnibus composite score.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Name: Behavioral Avoidance-Inhibition Scales (BIS/BAS Scales)
• Instrument Type: Self-report psychometric rating inventory / personality questionnaire
• Item Count: 24 total items (20 scored items categorized across four operational scales, plus 4 filler items)
• Administration Format: Individual or group paper-and-pencil questionnaire, computer-assisted self-interview, or digital web-based psychological assessment
• Estimated Completion Time: Approximately 3 to 5 minutes
• Target Population: Adolescents and adults (typically validated for individuals aged 16 years and older) across general, educational, occupational, and clinical psychiatric contexts
• Response Format: 4-point Likert-type forced-choice scale anchored with:
  • 1 = Very true for me
  • 2 = Somewhat true for me
  • 3 = Somewhat false for me
  • 4 = Very false for me
• Scoring and Directionality Rules:
  • Scoring Scale Reversal: Note that the response options are numerically structured from 1 (true) to 4 (false). To ensure that higher numerical values reflect higher levels of the psychological construct, all items except Item 2 and Item 22 must be reverse scored during raw data processing.
  • Reversal Formula: $\text{New Score} = 5 – \text{Raw Response}$. Following this transformation, a response of 1 becomes 4, 2 becomes 3, 3 becomes 2, and 4 becomes 1.
  • Unreversed Items: Item 2 and Item 22 are directly scored as marked ($1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 3, 4 = 4$) because their semantic phrasing is already keyed inversely to fear/anxiety.
• Subscale Item Composition:
  • Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): Sum of 7 items: 2, 8, 13, 16, 19, 22, 24 (Theoretical score range: 7 to 28; Items 8, 13, 16, 19, and 24 reversed; Items 2 and 22 unreversed). Higher scores indicate greater punishment sensitivity, vulnerability to anxiety, and passive avoidance tendencies.
  • BAS Drive (BAS-D): Sum of 4 items: 3, 9, 12, 21 (Theoretical score range: 4 to 16; all reversed). Higher scores indicate proactive perseverance and persistent pursuit of desired goals.
  • BAS Fun Seeking (BAS-FS): Sum of 4 items: 5, 10, 15, 20 (Theoretical score range: 4 to 16; all reversed). Higher scores indicate spontaneous appetitive exploration, novelty-seeking, and impulsivity.
  • BAS Reward Responsiveness (BAS-RR): Sum of 5 items: 4, 7, 14, 18, 23 (Theoretical score range: 5 to 20; all reversed). Higher scores indicate strong hedonic and affective reactivity to positive reinforcement and success.
  • Filler Items (Non-Scored): Items 1, 6, 11, 17 are included to buffer response sets and distract respondents from test hypotheses; they are omitted from psychometric scoring calculations.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Behavioral Avoidance-Inhibition Scales were published in 1994 by Dr. Charles S. Carver and Dr. Teri L. White within the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, a primary journal of the American Psychological Association (APA). The instrument is dedicated to the public academic domain for non-commercial scientific research, clinical evaluation, and teaching purposes.

Licensing and Usage Policy: In alignment with Dr. Carver’s open-science commitment, no formal permission, copyright licensing fees, or financial royal payment is required to use, reproduce, or translate the BIS/BAS Scales for non-commercial empirical research, university education, or clinical diagnostic protocols. Investigators must properly attribute the scale’s origin by citing Carver and White’s 1994 foundational article in any resultant conference presentations, theses, or peer-reviewed journal publications. Commercial distribution, integration into fee-for-service enterprise psychological test batteries, or commercial digital health applications requires review and authorization from the copyright holder and publisher.

References

• Campbell-Sills, L., Liverant, G. I., & Brown, T. A. (2004). Psychometric evaluation of the Behavioral Inhibition/Behavioral Activation Scales in a large sample of outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders. Psychological Assessment, 16(3), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.16.3.244
• Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174794
• Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319
• Cogswell, A., Alloy, L. B., van Dulmen, M. H., & Fresco, D. M. (2006). A psychometric evaluation of behavioral inhibition and approach system (BIS/BAS) scales in a high-risk sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(8), 1649–1660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.008
• Franken, I. H., Muris, P., & Rassin, E. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Dutch BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 27(1), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-005-3262-2
• Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Harmon-Jones, E., & Allen, J. J. (1997). Behavioral activation sensitivity and resting frontal EEG asymmetry: Covariation of putative indicators related to risk for mood disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(1), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.106.1.159
• Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Henderson, A. S., Jacomb, P. A., Korten, A. E., & Rodgers, B. (1999). Using Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales in a suitably representative community sample: Factor structure and relationship to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 26(3), 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00170-2
• Leone, L., Perugini, M., Bagozzi, R. P., Pierro, A., & Mannetti, L. (2001). Construct validity and generalizability of the Carver-White BIS/BAS scales in Italy. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1027//1015-5759.17.1.44
• Sutton, S. K., & Davidson, R. J. (1997). Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems. Psychological Science, 8(3), 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00413.x

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)